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ImOrllY CR ROM Y 


ARCHITECTURAL AND STRUCTURAL 


THEORY AND PRACTICE 
by 
LEON V. SOLON 


with introduction by 


RALPH ADAMS CRAM 











THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD 


NEW YORK 


1924 


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Copyrighted 1924 by 
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Typographical Design by % 
Cuarves D. DEVINNE 





FOREWORD 


laa iti: complete loss of color out of architecture is 
one of the curious phenomena of the Renais- 
Z| sance, casting its drab shadow in lengthening 
1 lines and ever-increasing gloom over the art of 
building in modern times. It was a transformation that was 
not effected all at once. In the beginnings of the return to 
pagan modes there was color enough, as in the work of 
the Lombardi in Venice, the Cosmati in Rome, the church 
interiors of Alberti, the palaces of Francois I'*, but now 
the color was less that of pigment decoration and more in 
the form of various marbles, inlay of glittering mosaic, and 
burnished gold-leaf. Later, as architectural forms grew more 
gray and monotone, great pictures came to embellish 
interior walls, and sometimes even exteriors as well, as 
again in Venice, where Titian and Giorgione did not dis- 
dain this alluring but ephemeral task. Of course in Spain 
the glory of color lasted all through the local Renaissance 
until architecture itself froze and died during the last years 
of the reign of Charles V. After all, Spanish Renaissance is 
a thing by itself, not to be confounded with that of any other 
country, and the modes that held there held not elsewhere. 

Essentially however, so far as our own architectural line 
of descent is concerned, the Renaissance spelled the extinc- 
tion of color as an architectonic quality. Form, as this 
book shows, was the primary aim of the new leaders, and 
the prompt advent of the Reformation, with its explicit 
and destructive hatred of beauty, expedited the inevitable 


[ vii | 





FOREWORD 


end. For the first time in history color was definitely dis- 
associated from architecture, and this separation reached its 
completeness about the end of the last century. Always in 
the past architecture and color had been inseparable; 
Greece, Rome, Byzantium, the Dark Ages, Mediaevalism— 
and one may add all Asia and the Moorish caliphates of the 
Mediterranean—had seen architecture in terms of form plus 
color, and to any of them an Escorial, a St. Paul’s Cathe- 
dral or a Lincoln Memorial would have been unthinkable. 
Very recently have appeared signs of a return to the old 
and hitherto unusual methods. The incubus of a negative 
Puritanism dissolves the dogmas of Vitruvius. The prece- 
dents of Inigo Jones no longer command blind acceptance. 
Grey Gothic and white Classic do not wholly satisfy. Ven- 
ice and Spain, not to speak of Japan and India, make their 
revelations of what color once was and the power it ex- 
erted. Calvinistic whitewash and Renaissance plaster peel. 
from Mediaeval walls, disclosing the faded films of once 
splendid color, and long-buried fragments of fallen Hellenic 
temples expose the startling evidences of polychrome dec- 
oration on what were long held to be (and so copied) snow- 
pure fanes, white in the midst of dark cypresses. Also the 
normal human hunger for gaiety, joyfulness, the emotional 
appeal of every kind of sensuous beauty, after the drab in- 
terregnum of dullness and materialism, begins to exert it- 
self, and we call for color as we call for music and romance 
(even if only in moving pictures) and ritual and religious 
ceremonial. The manner in which color is coming, for in- 
stance, into the commercial architecture of Fifth Avenue, 
is in itself indicative of the change that follows the demand. 


[ viii ] 


FOREWORD 


Perhaps from this we shall go on to recover in our churches 
something of the richness of Monreale and Albi, and in our 
civic architecture a radiance of color that will induce our 
painters to emulate the Van Eycks in their painting of the 
niches and the statues of the Bruges Town Hall, or Titian 
and Giorgione when they turned the plastered walls of 
Venetian palaces into enormous pictures. 

A volume such as thisis both significant and valuable. 
For the first time, I believe, the best attested facts as to 
Greek polychromy are logically assembled and the theory 
that underlay them clearly put forth. As Mr. Solon says, 
there are two ways in which color may be used architec- 
turally, the purely decorative in the one case, as a stimulus 
to emotion in the other. It was after the first fashion the 
Greeks used color, and, as March Phillipps so clearly 
shows in his ‘Form and,Color’’, it was from the East that 
the revelation came of the powers of color as a spiritual 
force through the emotions it engenders. After the union of 
Hellenic form and Oriental color in Syria, Alexandria and 
Anatolia, (the great Christian syntheses of intellect and 
emotion) it was to this end that color was used in Byzan- 
tine, Romanesque and Gothic art. The purely decorative 
was the Classical idea, whether it was the crude pigments of 
the Greeks or the opulent marbles, mosaics and gold of 
the Romans. Limited as were these materials, the Greeks 
used them with their invariable skill and intelligence, work- 
ing out an exact system of rules that gave always the best 
results, many of these rules continuing over into Mediaeval 
times and serving in such novel arts as stained glass, enamel 
and tapestry. It is probably impossible for the modern 


[ix] 


FOREWORD 


mind to appreciate the effect of a Doric temple gaudily 
decked with these vivid colors in juxtapositions alien to 
our own taste, either because they may actually have been a 
clever standardization and refinement of modes barbarous 
in their inception, and so not absolutely and permanently 
good or, which is more probable, because the Greek mind 
had certain sense-perceptions we have lost, as their musical 
scales are to us entirely incomprehensible. In any case the 
laws they deduced are lasting things, based on supreme 
reason, and these laws are of the utmost value today, now 
that we are once more beginning to use color as a decora- 
tive element in architecture. Accepted, they will prevent 
some of the gross errors that have been made of late when 
imitators have used color empirically. 

It is greatly to be desired that the same study that has 
been given here to the elucidation of the Greek decorative 
use of color should be applied to the cognate, but widely 
different problem of the Mediaeval use of color as emotional 
stimulus. Such a study could hardly have issue in such a 
body of logical principles and definite law as is here set 
forth, for the essence of the Middle Ages was freedom and 
spiritual energy, where the Classical system was law and 
the intellectual determination. The problem is no less in- 
teresting for that; indeed it would seem to be more stimu- 
lating, while its value at the present time would be at least 
equal. Perhaps it escapes from the category of aesthetics 
into that of philosophy and mysticism and should be dealt 


withcorrespondingly,. 
RALPH ADAMS CRAM 


|x | 


HOIN Gee ON AES 


peepee wWORDIOs RALPH ADAMS CRAM.....¢5......-0.0.20c0005; Vil 
CHAPTER I. BEDOUIN COOLS ea et meg SSN Direkt Oh I 
CHAPTER II. The relative values of historic methods..... 9 
CHAPTER III The form of artistic impulse that should con- 
trol architectural color effect............. O23 
CHAPTER IV. Color phenomena that are active in poly- 
GUTOMATIC ICH OCU tee ennen perm n als oe wee ar 
CHAPTER V. The architectonic objective in Greek poly- 
CNIRETERENG FREER pr eles torent cre tara 39 
CHAPTER VI. The relation that must be established be- 
tween structural effect and polychromatic 
Bic CUR pe er eN Mee No Ns eaten ome Se AQ 


CHAPTER VII. The technique of architectural polychromy. 63 


CHAPTER VIII. The development of color interest through 


the manipulation of plasticform.......... 8I 
CHAPTER IX. ‘The polychromatic treatment of architec- 

‘tural detail by the Greeks... ............ QI 
CHAPTER X. The polychromy of architectural sculpture.. 107 
CHAPTER XI. Critique of certain works bearing upon archi- 

tectural and sculptural polychromy....... 139 
meeleroteeterence Of avoidance: 23.0600. flees ee ee 143 


OUR CLEES UD SS Ra eI ROR ieee ren ar cy eRe mee aa Sas rns Ra 157 


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Biot OF TLUSTRATIONS 


Northwest pediment of the Parthenon.................... 3 
Memeo eharmhenons:. oi... es ea lee cs cece ees 7 
Sermetreiimle Of ADO... iy. eee oo... 13 
Eeycnrome tetta cotta metope, Temple of Apollo........... 13 
mepoeouves oF buildings at Olympia... ......00. 0.00.0 25-4. 19 
Pre erOmPe eV OPSCION 6 ee ee ee ee ORS: 2 

eGMgretUerueerOPyiaca 6. cle. oe eee eee, oy 
femenronteterta-COtta COMmMices::. 0... ee ol ee 29 
Meee MP IQIGLO nn no ces ey Cee eee. ay 
Mmm IRC ECOTALIONS 2) po oe OE es. 43 
iit igeebcmmle at Aegina... 0.2.02. OU cc ee. A3 
Greek mural paintings, polychrome period............ ah aA 
RMN SRL Gt eh aS ts me Mees 53 
Mearenrone terracotta detail... 1.0 oe le ee 55 
ieee etenimie. of Concord at Girgentl. 2: ..... 060.5005 2.0- 57 
Be eneeie tetra-cotta details? eee ee, 65 
Wea teination im the palmette, 220.0. ee le oe ae 67 
Illustrating regulation of decorative emphasis............. 69 
perme ouieaterra-cotta moldings... 7, oe bn. oe, 73 
eee mATOLeTION: |. oe ae eee. Deo ata’ 
Ser CE ym es eke Ns fk Woe, Ohi ee ees Oe 83 
Plastic form to develop tonal quality in flat color........... 87 
Section of the central akroterion, Olympia................ go 
eimeconierarchitectiral detail. -23 oe) Wen ee ee 93 
haiwcicome tool tiles, sarcoyle and.cyma,..01.. 2.5.25... 95 
Mee ee cCOTnice Ol tetra-cOtta «0. 6 ass soe eee eo eee Q7 
ee ECC OL arg APS vgn Pea UO ne ee 99 
RECO LAL societal ON wee Aten Odea Rp oe rae cage IOI 
Pee Ge es TIONS mocaty eu ies Vos Ren eee tanh tans Flee 103 


DIST OF ICDLUSTRATIONS 


Polychrome’anthemia... 02.730. 2h 104 
Polvchrome detatl) cee ee. eee i EEL Y ter 105 
Group; Temple of Zeus: ........ 5.5.90 34. 109 
Polychrome‘sphinx. 6263.2. 9.9405 ene III 
Polychrome head of the charioteer.......... |. 113 
Full polychrome figure, Akropolis..... 72...) ee T15 
Detail of sea-bird decorations, Temple of Athena.......... 116 
Detail of the Triton pediment, Akropolis,.) 7.3) 117 
The portico of the Erectheum... >. 7.7) ee 119 
Polychrome’sculpture........... 3147. .3 59 er 121 
Theseus and Antiope, Temple of Apollo... >) 7 eee 123 
Polychrome sculpture. ...:........0 ©. 7.2. 125 
Polychrome metope............4..0., 2 lay, 
Polychrome sculpture. .................), 2 129 
Artemis; National Museum, Naples...) 37. 131 
Caryatid; Erectheum....:....2.. 2 230) ‘gba 
Drapery omamentation. =. ee PE eS 132 
Polychrome detail........ 0. 20.0.0... 74, 135 
Polychrome pediment, Delphi... ..... 7. ee 13% 


COLOR PLATES ~ 


Plate Lo. be ee SE a I 
Plate Tle 0 0 5 2 ay a ee 16 
Plate TT... 0200. ee i ee oe 
Plate WV... ee. cen ee oe oe AQ 
Plate Vo. is ci Se 64 
Plate VI... ce ee a 81 
Plate VII o.oo 0. 96 
Plate VIII... 2.0.0... os a ae 104 
Plate IX 2. i ei ess ces Te 


[ xiv ] 








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‘ClabeMed pees I 


Introductory 


RIN our selection of the Greek system of poly- 
{| chromy for analysis, that plan of procedure was 
| followed usually adopted in biological research 
#| when observation is concentrated upon a cer- 
tain genus, in order that the behavior of the species may 
be ascertained. Architectural polychromy is a distinct spe- 
cies of effect; the various racial types of polychromy repre- 
sent the genera of the species; the condition common to all 
is the relation of color effect to structural effect. Greek 
architecture in analytical research possesses an additional 
advantage in that it is what may be termed ‘‘organic,”’ 
that is to say, the structural unit is composed of a definite 
series of items, each performing an individual and related 
structural function. | 

The reasons for concentration upon Greek practice may 
be summarized as follows. The Greeks subordinated and 
co-related color effect with architectural effect, as will be 
shown; in the Greek type of design the reaction of color 
emphasis upon structural properties is discernible, owing 
to the close identification of the form of an item with its 
function. Those active and erratic properties in color, which 
are irresponsible factors in architectural effect, were recog- 
nized and utilized decoratively. In the Greek system we find 
all our serious problems encountered and overcome in so 


simple and logical a fashion, that it is possible to form basic 
[x] 





2 INTRODUCTORY 


rules with which to regulate practice, merely by making 
obvious deductions. The clarity of Greek perception was 
responsible for guiding principles and the resultant 
technique, making their achievement superior to the limita- 
tions of stylistic peculiarities. Their practice evolved solely 
through an accurate observation of the action of color 
emphasis upon those elements of structural effect which 
are common to all styles of design—a fact which gives their 
method the widest possible range in application. 

In planning means for color control in architectural 
effect, it is necessary to acquire information foreign to that 
usually encountered in the course of professional practice. 
Color must be regarded from an unfamiliar angle which 
takes into consideration specific properties of pigment, as 
definite color phenomena attend certain forms of decora- 
tive color arrangement; these must be neutralized when 
disadvantageous, or developed when beneficial, by means 
of a specialized color technique. 

Investigation must also take an unaccustomed direction 
in the architectural field. It does not relate to the creation 
of architectural schemes, but concerns an unusual form of 
structural analysis of an aesthetic character, enabling us to 
determine the precise relationship that color emphasis 
should bear to those structural values which design co- 
ordinates. 

The following problems confront us in this undertaking: 

(1) To identify such color phenomena as are operative 
in decorative effect. | 

(2) To determine the true relationship which should 
~ exist between polychromy and architectural effect. 


o 








NORTHWEST PEDIMENT OF.THE PARTHENON (Polychromy by 
His color treatment of the metopes is inaccurate 





Fenger) 








INTRODUCTORY 


(3) To formulate principles and devise a technique for 
polychromy which shall be applicable to modern problems. 

We must not overlook the fact that pigment possesses 
active inherent properties when artistically employed, and 
that success can only be achieved in architectural poly- 
chromy when those activities are controlled decoratively. 
If we proceed in ignorance of physical properties and active 
phenomena identified with the artistic use of color which 
regulate the issue of endeavor, confusion must inevitably 
result; when artistic intuition is relied upon for guidance in 
the complexities of an art, we trust to a most erratic and 
variable factor in an undertaking which demands regulated 
procedure. | 

Of recent years in this country, color has been employed 
for architectural embellishment with results that are negli- 
gible in sofar as they offer opportunities for constructive de- 
duction; the reason being that the development of color 
effect has resulted from the exercise of an erratic form of 
artistic impulse. There is no evidence in any example of 
American polychromy to prove that the inherent properties 
of color which assert themselves in that type of decoration 
have been recognized, directed or controlled; neither has 
the relation of color emphasis to structural effect-values 
been even vaguely sensed. 

When formulating basic rules for the regulation of color 
effect in architecture, we fortunately do not depend upon the 
modern example for illuminating data. The polychrome 
treatment of quite a number of classic buildings has been 
accurately reconstructed by the archaeologist in such fash- 
ion that they can be analyzed. Ifa polychrome scheme is 


INTRODUCTORY 5 


excellent from the architectural and scenic aspects, it mat- 
ters little whether it be ancient or modern; the fundamental 
laws of Aesthetic are no more subject to change with the 
passage of time than are the principles of Geometry. Aesthe- 
tic value in architectural effect is determined by the capacity 
of design to meet critical standards which are constant; 
the circumstance that a building was designed in the 
Fourth Century B. C., the Sixteenth A. D., or the present 
day, cannot influence intrinsic merit from the aesthetic 
point of view. 

In embarking upon a study of this description, one may 
expend much fruitless energy in attempting to evolve in- 
dependently that which exists already in a complete state 
in archaeological records. Various races have practiced archi- 
tectural polychromy for successive centuries; in many cases 
it was a definitely regulated artistic activity with a systema- 
tized technique, the outcome of observation exercised in a 
sustained effort to achieve perfection in color method. In 
each instance a lengthy period elapsed before the incon- 
testable solution was evolved, with its consequent stand- 
ardization in practice. With this fact in mind it is ob- 
viously futile to attempt to originate an adequate system 
in a life’s span. However, the formulation of a practical 
polychrome method does not call for creative effort, for the 
information we need is contained in the polychrome re- 
mains of ancient races, which demonstrate methods that 
endured the test of time and were matured through the 
exercise of critical faculties of the highest order. Ample 
evidence is to be found in certain polychromic types to show 
that basic principles governed color location and the ar- 


6 INTRODUCTORY 


rangement of colors upon ornamentation—but the rules 
which regulated practice were forgotten with the extinction 
of the artistic impulse from which they evolved. We must 
therefore attempt the reconstitution of those aesthetic argu- 
ments upon which such practice rests; we propose to do so 
by analyzing and dissecting classic works produced under 
the domination of fixed points of view, in order that the 
aesthetic argument may be detected in the decorative result. 
When a fine art incorporates a decorative art in the com- 
position of a certain work that it may be enhanced by the 
introduction of anextraneous quality of interest, the aesthe- 
tic objectives responsible for the material form which the 
major artistic activity takes, must control the application 
and development of the minor activity. In a polychrome 
building, purely architectonic considerations must there- 
fore dictate color location and its decorative elaboration. 
Previous to the study of this co-ordination of effect, it is 
essential to gain acquaintance with such chromatic activi- 
ties as are capable of creating unforeseen architectural con- 
sequences. In the decorative grouping of bright colors 
which were invariably used in the historic types, certain 
optical phenomena were active which were artistically det- 
rimental. This condition was recognized in the develop- 
ment of polychromic types of the higher order, such as the 
Greek and the Gothic, and was anticipated in design by 
systematized procedure which rendered the hazard negli- 
gible. Technique was based upon definite knowledge of the 
operation of those color phenomena which were found to be 
active in the decorative grouping of pigments, the bene- 
ficial and the detrimental enjoying equal consideration. 


nee 


PORTICO OF THE PARTHENON (Polychromy 


Coloring of the frieze is inaccurate 





by Fenger) 


8 INTRODUCTORY 


The operation of color phenomena in decorative effect 
is parallel to that of sound in its musical relation. Musical 
inspiration may only find adequate expression through 
the strictest observance of the rules of musical harmony, 
which in turn are founded upon an accurate and scientific 
knowledge of certain phenomena operative in the musical 
combination of sound. The behavior of those phenomena 
in their harmonic relation is so definitely determined, that a 
complex sound condition can be stated by means of a 
numeral or a sign. Natural laws actually govern the basis 
of harmonious color relations; but it is the traditional 
practice of artists to rely entirely upon their intuition and 
critical faculty for the realization of their aims—a pro- 
cedure fully justified where a decorative activity is self- 
centered, but less defensible when associated. We are well 
aware that chromatic activities in decoration do not lend 
themselves as conveniently to formal statement as do tonal 
activities in musical harmony. Nevertheless, certain con- 
ditions in color must be recognized and anticipated; for, if 
they be ignored or defied, it will be as difficult to satisfy the 
aesthetic sense with the result, as it would be with music 
composed under similar circumstances. In the association 
of polychromy with architecture, we have not only to con- 
sider the mutual relation of colors in ornamentation, but 
to discover the reaction of color phenomena upon architec- 
tonic properties. 


Cab e dea Ine AMI 


Sine Relative Values of Historic Methods 





rendered it a valuable medium for transmitting the social 
message which figures so prominently in architectural 
design of that order. In the derivative types of architectural 
expression, such as the Renaissance and its off-shoots, we 
find polychromy eliminated and very deliberately avoided, 
despite the important part which it played in the entity of 
effect of their prototypes. 

With the advent of the classic revival at the latter part 
of the fifteenth century in Italy, the art of polychrome 
decoration for the exterior of structures falls into disuse. 
Previous to that period, the weight of evidence would 
justify the belief that every architectural scheme was vis- 
ualized in color at its inception, as an essential complement 
to structural effect.* The consistency with which color came 
to be avoided by the Renaissance architects and their suc- 
cessors, might induce the hasty conclusion that some pro- 
found error had been discovered, of which the creators of 
the great racial types were not cognizant. It would be diff- 
cult to support such a theory in view of the artistic achieve- 
ment of previous ages. Anaesthetic conviction was respon- 

* The later phases of Roman architecture were probably the sole exceptions. 


[9] 


10 HISTORIC METHODS 


sible for the departure of the Renaissance architect from un- 
broken tradition, as we will endeavor to explain later in the 
chapter. The omission of polychromy by the originators of 
the subsequent styles, 1s due to their unquestioning accept- 
ance of the Renaissance artistic standards. In modern times 
a blind adherence to that tradition has controlled practice, 
combined with profound ignorance of the important r6éle 
that polychromy played in architectural sentiment previous 
to the classic revival of the fifteenth century. With the 
modern practitioner, procedure is not a question of aesthetic 
discrimination as it was with the Renaissance architect; 
monotone architecture has become a conventional habit 
of thought which persists with the inflexibility of a dogma. 

When the Renaissance architect eliminated color from 
his exterior design, he was simply following the impulse of 
one who removes an obstacle from his path, for his clearly 
visualized ideals did not include that form of enrichment. 
He was establishing a new rating in architectural values 
which admitted no half measures. Any decorative resource 
which could not contribute to the realization of the new 
ideals was discarded; this was the case with polychromy. 
Historic precedent was not then recognized as a credential 
of worth; color emphasis was regarded merely as a disturb- 
ing element in the newly conceived plan for architectonic 
adjustment. 

It is to be hoped that in the near future we may see a 
revived appreciation of polychromy actuating architec- 
tural design in this country. With the awakening of a racial 
spirit in American architecture, we shall see precedent 
giving place to considerations of artistic serviceableness. 


HISTORIC METHODS II 


A capacity to contribute towards the realization of new 
ideals will determine all decorative values. The possible 
utility of color in this respect has already begun to stimu- 
late professional imagination, but the extent to which it 
will fulfill its promise will depend upon the measure of se- 
curity with which it can be incorporated in an architectural 
scheme. That such a thing is both feasible and simple, we 
will endeavor to demonstrate. 


Pest oNS FOR THE ELIMINATION OF POLYCHROMY 
UPON THE EXTERIOR OF RENAISSANCE BUILDINGS 


Had the history of architectural polychromy been a sub- 
ject for specialized research, the attitude of the Renaissance 
architect with regard to color effect would probably have 
been a theme for considerable speculation. The sudden 
abandonment of so prominent a feature, identified with all 
previous phases of stylistic expression, must have been due 
to some compelling reason. The history of architecture 
shows stylistic variations co-incident with important 
changes in social and cultural conditions; it is improbable 
that a single instance could be found of a radical alteration 
originating within the art, independent of any external 
influence. Changes in style concurring with the accession 
of new rulers have been too frequently cited to justify further 
comment. They merely illustrate the sensibility of archi- 
tects to exterior influences and their capacity to record them 
in the expression of their art. 

The classic revival was aggressively reactionary 1n char- 
acter: on the exterior of Gothic buildings, color figures 
sumptuously as a characteristic feature—which might be 


12 HISTORICAMETAODS 


accounted a reason, though a negative one, for its elimina- 
tion in the new order of artistic creation. There are, however, 
other arguments of a more direct character to explain the 
avoidance of color. It may have been due to color decoration 
figuring as a minus quantity in the revised appraisal 
of effect values; or, that its use was condemned when a 
new angle of consideration entered into architectural com- 
position, as the result of a great discovery made in another 
art. 

With the cultural revolution of the late fifteenth century 
in Italy, the architects of that country became conscious 
of the fact that the classic buildings around them embodied 
an architectural principle radically different from those 
which controlled imaginative effort in the Byzantine, the 
Romanesque, or the Gothic types. In those buildings they 
saw revealed an entirely novel form of architectural creation, 
which demonstrated the principle of organized propor- 
tion. The definite relationship established between com- 
ponent items in those systematically designed structures, 
was to them an astounding novelty. As a direct result, pro- 
portional regulation of a quite different character from that 
previously recognized, became a major objective in design. 
Imaginative freedom in structural development, so essential 
to the materialization of the Gothic ideal, was the antithesis 
of the co-ordinated system of proportion which they now 
beheld in the classic building. The precise width of shadow 
projected by an unimportant member was a subject for 
careful adjustment, as an appreciable factor in a subtle 
gradation of values. In an architectural system which 
featured a perfectly attuned co-ordination of decorative 








ARCHAIC TEMPLE OF APOLLO 


( Keweran) 





POLYCHROME TERRA COTTA METOPE FROM TEMPLE 
OF APOLLO (Antike Denkmaeler) 


14 HISTORIC "METHODS 


and structural quantities, the inclusion of color effect, with 
its capacity for local emphasis, would have been a glaring 
inconsistency. 

This novel quality of precision which affected the con- 
formation of all architectural detail was stated in terms of 
light and shade. As the Renaissance feeling was maturing 
in architecture, a radical change was introduced in the 
means for pictorial expression, giving the projection of 
shadow a foremost rank among media of effect. Leonardo 
realized that masses in pictorial composition could be 
grouped with light and shade, which 1s probably the most 
far-reaching and revolutionary observation attributable 
to an individual in the history of art. His discovery of this 
new element of effect completely changed the conventional 
idea which had previously determined the relationship that 
should exist between light, form, and composition; it be- 
came the foundation for the method of consideration which 
has prevailed in all subsequent schools of painting. 

It was no uncommon thing in those days for a man to 
practice the arts of painting and architecture with equal 
distinction. We find such names as Giotto, Michelangelo, 
Raphael, Alberti, Vasari and many others figuring promi- 
nently on the rolls of both professions. In the Trattato della 
Pintura, Alberti writes of the inter-relation of the two arts 
in his day, saying that the architect gets the zdea of his 
building from the painter who stimulated his aspiration 
to create structural beauty. : 

With the high value then placed upon chiaroscuro in 
artistic effect, a powerful influence must necessarily have 
been exerted in any art in which light falling upon solids 


HISTORIC METHODS 15 


is a factor in effect—as it undoubtedly is in architecture. 
The fact that it transformed architectural treatment can 
be verified by the most superficial examination of Renais- 
sance ornamental detail. Attention was concentrated upon 
the conformation of that detail with the purpose of creating 
sparkling lights and precisely defined shadows. Sculptural 
technique for shadow projection contributed greatly to 
individuality in stylistic expression. Color could only bea 
competitive element in such a calculation of effect-value. 

The great chromatic beauty of the mural paintings and 
their decorative surroundings dismisses any thought that 
the Renaissance architects were lacking in color sympathy, 
as the interior decoration was frequently created by the de- 
signers of the buildings. At that period all traces of the 
original color treatment of classic models had long before 
disappeared, and it is doubtful whether the Renaissance 
architects had any information on the subject: in any case 
historical literary data would have been as useless to them 
for practical purposes as it is to us. 


CONSIDERATIONS THAT SHOULD DETERMINE THE CHOICE OF 
HReeOLY CHROME -MODEL 

The plan of this treatise is to reconstitute by means of 
archaeological data, that historic polychrome method which 
is most adaptable to modern requirements; the creation of 
an original scheme is not contemplated. There are several 
racial types of polychromy available for research, each of 
which was consistently practised for several centuries, 
achieving results which satisfied generations of masters in 
the structural art. We must decide which of those methods 


16 HISTORIGAMETHODS 


is likely to solve the greater number of our difficulties and 
prove most fruitful in suggestion. 

Each racial type of structural design evolved a distinc- 
tive form and quality of polychrome effect. No two systems 
are identical in their methods for developing decorative 
color interest, though certain common principles and simi- 
larities in technique are to be found. Polychrome effect 
must obviously be subordinate to architectural effect, and 
in every instance the development of color technique ma- 
tures in that relation. The variety in decorative quality 
that exists in the polychromic types is a natural conse- 
quence of the dissimilarity characterizing their respective 
structural types. Bearing in mind this connection of each 
polychrome method with a structural type, the problem 
of chosing a model color-method is simplified. Research 
must be directed to some structural type with a polychrome 
system of its own, exerting an inspirational influence in 
modern architecture. 

There are seven racial types of polychromy, concerning 
the practice of which sufficient information has been ac- 
cumulated for the purpose of determining controlling fac- 
tors and points of view: these are the Assyrian, Egyptian, 
Hindu, Chinese, Mahommedan, Greek and Gothic. As the 
basis for selection requires that the structural type must 
be an active modern influence, only two of these, the Greek 
and the Gothic, may be regarded as likely to prove serv- 
iceable. These two methods have been investigated and 
comparison made, which shows that their basic principles 
governing color location are very similar; this constitutes 
a point of major importance in polychromy investigation. 


PLATE I] 





THE TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA (Curtis and Adler) 
With Metopes Added 





HISTORIC METHODS 17 


There are many radical differences in the Greek and Gothic 
methods and technique, but these are to be expected when 
we consider the great dissimilarities in structural design. 
We must therefore discover in which of the two types the 
true function of polychromy is most clearly demonstrated, 
so that we may with safety formulate a basis for modern 
practice which will not be identified with any particular 
architectural type. As polychromy is subordinate to struc- 
tural effect, we must regard these two types from the angle 
of their structural characteristics, for in design they typify 
two radically different principles. If we consider the mutual 
relation of the component parts of structures of the Greek 
and Gothic types, the Greek represents the systematized 
‘form of structural arrangement, the Gothic the free. As 
one of our major difficulties lies in discovering the action 
of polychromy upon the structural properties of any item 
treated, investigation is considerably simplified if it be pros- 
ecuted in a type of structural design that is practically 
regulated; this condition prevails in Greek architecture— 
the reverse in the Gothic. In a Greek building of any of the 
orders, the mutual relation of its exterior items is paralleled 
in other structures of the same type. If observation is con- 
centrated upon the Doric order, for example, it is possible 
to compare the polychrome treatment of any item through 
a series of buildings in which it performs an identical struc- 
tural function with varied decorative treatments. This 
procedure is obviously impossible with the variations in 
structural design which characterize the Gothic manner. 

In the Sixth and Fifth centuries in Greece, the funda- 
mental principles governing color location remained un- 


18 -HISTORIC METHODS 


changed. The structural variations identified with the 
three orders were subject to basic regulation when color 
decoration was concerned, and color location was arbitrar- 
ily fixed. The Greeks solved the color problem in architec- 
ture at a comparatively early date, and consistently ad- 
hered to methods which they must have found thoroughly 
adequate, for it is impossible to imagine them as persisting 
in palpable errors. They were ever watchful for perfection 
in procedure; their gift for judicially appraising aesthetic 
values causing them to adhere to the tested method in cases 
where our love for experimentation would lead us to the 
tentative. Conservatism under such circumstances is a 
credential of worth. | 

_ When we consider tne polychrome decoration of a Greek 
building in the light of a systematically produced result, we 
feel that certain angles of scrutiny with which we are un- 
familiar must have influenced architectural design. The 
invariable use of polychromy, and the great number of 
buildings so treated which surrounded the designer, must 
have caused him to consider each detail in connection with 
its ultimate treatment in color. In the designing of the 
super-structure, for instance, the knowledge that the spac- 
ing of parts would be accentuated with colored members 
or details, must have compelled an exercise of artistic judg- 
ment which is less vital in the uncolored structure. It is 
possible that some of those pronounced differences existing 
between the original Greek structure and the carefully 
measured modern copy, are due to the absence of certain 
critical points of view which have been lost with the aban- 
donment of polychromy. Qualities which we conveniently 











PERSPECTIVES OF THE POLYCHROME BUILDING AT OLYMPIA (Curtius and Adler) 


20 HISTORIC METHODS 


attribute to the artistic intuition of the Greeks, may in 
many instances have actually resulted from the exercise of 
unknown forms of critical analysis, directly or indirectly 
influenced by the presence of color in effect. 

Were it possible to reconstitute the mental process of 
a Greek architect when adjusting the details of his com- 
position, and compare it with that of his Renaissance 
follower or his modern imitator, surprising differences 
might be discovered, many of which would undoubtedly 
be concerned 1n some way with polychromy. In the calcula- 
tion of the Greek we might find much attention given to 
proportional allowances, which experience taught him were 
necessary in order to compensate for the influence of color 
upon the apparent dimensions of painted areas. Prominent 
architectural features would be designed with the knowl- 
edge that the requisite effectiveness depended entirely upon 
the way in which the motif lent itself to sub-division, 1n 
such fashion that colors might be satisfactorily grouped 
upon the component parts. Ornamentation would be con- 
sidered in terms of motif and field, as a silhouette of dark 
form upon a light ground, or the reverse; but he would 
know that the weight of ornamentation made for the former 
relation of tone and subject, would not be applicable to 
the latter, unless certain modifications were made to com- 
pensate for that difference which occurs in the apparent 
weight of a motif when transferred from a light background 
toadark. Proportional areas and ornamental values assume 
an additional importance when polychromy enters into 
the calculation, for color emphasis has the dangerous fac- 
ulty of magnifying deficiencies in artistic judgment. -Is it © 


HISTORIC METHODS BI 


not possible that the admirable quality of rhythm and the 
perfection in spacing which characterize Greek architectural 
ornamentation, are partly attributable to the habit of 
considering ornamental values in tone values? 


ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA ON GREEK POLYCHROMY 


Owing to the perishable nature of all pigment, only those 
examples of architectural polychromy have survived which 
have been protected from disintegration by burial. When 
these are exhumed, after centuries of immunity from the 
action of light and of atmospheric conditions, the colors 
rapidly fade upon exposure. Though many when first seen 
are in what was presumably their original state, in a very 
short time the pigments fade to a fraction of their intensity, 
conveying in that condition a very inadequate idea of their 
former decorative value. The data which are necessary to 
our investigation are contained in a comparatively small 
number of archaeological works, which record the excava- 
tion of certain Greek buildings upon which traces of poly- 
chromy were found. It is, however, necessary to exercise 
considerable discretion in the acceptance of data with which 
to establish premises; for, in certain well-known works, 
the enthusiasm of the archaeologist-architect has been re- 
sponsible for fanciful designing with which he bridged gaps 
in actual data. Subsequent evidence has proven these 
imaginative efforts to be contrary to fact or possibility. The 
most flagrantexample of this class is the work of Hittorff, 
recording the excavations at Selinous. For these features on 
which he found no traces of ornamentation or color, he de- 
vised decorations which are quite “‘Empire’’ in character, 


22 HISTORIC METHODS 


and he appears to have made it a matter of professional 
conscience to ornament all architraves, triglyphs and coro- 
nae. On none of these items has ornamentation been found 
in subsequent discoveries, for reasons which we will endeavor 
to explain: only in the very early Doric Temple of Assos is 
the architrave carved—with most unsatisfactory effect from 
the architectural point of view. The French color reconstruc- 
tions of the Temple of Empedocles, and that of Zeus at 
Olympia, contain similar inaccuracies, as judged by the 
preponderance of evidence. Were such works seriously con- 
sidered, an unaccountable element of confusion would be 
introduced into the highly systematized procedure of the 
Sixth and early Fifth centuries. The clear evidence which 
we find in Greek polychrome practise of artistic conviction, 
and of logical argument providing solutions for practical 
difficulties, must inevitably be obscured by such conflicting 
data. 

_ Reliable information in sufficient quantity for compari- 
son and deduction can be found in the works herewith enu- 
merated. Penrose’s classic work on Athenian Antiquities. 
The Olympia Reconstructions of Curtius and Adler. Wie- 
gand’s ‘‘Poros-architektur” treating of the ancient temples 
of the Acropolis built of tufaceous stone. Furtwangler’s 
Reconstructions of Aegina and Aphaia. The Excavations 
at Delphi by the French School of Athens. 


GEEAP CER ITI 


The Form of Artistic Impulse that Should 
Control Architectural Color Effect 


& 


SSD. 





tive activity and file other exercising a direct sense appeal. 
In the former case color effect and quality is conceived to 
produce pictorial value—tfor lack of a more comprehensive 
term. In the latter, it aims to produce decorative value. 
The technical methods identified with each quality of effect, 
have developed out of the need for expressing distinct phases 
of artistic feeling. That feeling which guides the develop- 
ment of “‘pictorial’’ values in effect, is totally different from 
that which creates decorative values. The aesthetic objec- 
tives being dissimilar, the means for attaining them differ 
correspondingly, be they mental or technical: each quality 
of effect representing a distinct aesthetic aspiration stated 
by the most expressive methods. 

Preliminary to studying the technique of Eeahiteetiral 
color decoration, we must determine to which of these two 
classes of color effect architectural polychromy belongs. 
That is to say, should the effect created in a polychrome 
building aim to stimulate poetic or other forms of abstract 
thought through its beauty, or should it merely contribute 
an extraneous interest to purely architectonic beauty? The 

[23] 


24 COLOR EFFECT 


determination of this problem is the first serious difficulty 
confronting the architect who sets out to achieve results 
in polychromy, tempted by the alluring idea that in this 
form of decoration artistic intuition must be superior to 
mere analytical knowledge. 

It seems superfluous to state that if architectural poly- 
chromy is to be developed effectively and appropriately in 
relation to its subject, it must possess a distinctive quality 
of color effect. The prerequisite for the attainment of this 
distinctive quality in color expression is an intimate ac- 
quaintance with the limitations and capacities of media, as 
considered in their relation to the composite effect. Every 
variety of pigment or colored material develops a distinctive 
tonal quality when adequately employed in the expression 
of an artistic purpose, be the pigment tempera, pastel or 
oil color, or the material woven silk or painted glass. In 
the applied or decorative arts this quality is realizable 
through the regulation of design. It is the result of a specific 
basis for color selection, the proportional grouping of color 
areas, and the mutual arrangement of colors upon detail. 
In many decorative arts practised today, traditional prac- 
tices assuring safe results can be followed. In architectural 
polychromy there is no recognized source to which the 
architect may repair for practical information on his sub- 
ject. He might assume that, as familiarity with the vagaries 
of color-action must be essential to a successful issue, the 
feeling of the painter in the use of his own medium should 
be productive of the best results. Such is not the case; the 
aesthetic objectives which control both procedure and means. 
for effect in the practice of each art are totally different in 





PORTICO OF THE THESEION (Polychromy by Fenger) 


te 


Inaccura 


ieze is 


treatment of color on fri 


1S 


H 


26 COLOR EFFECT 


painting and architecture. The effect of architectural poly- 
chromy must have a direct association with architectural 
effect—not with scenic values of an unrelated order. 

The uncertainty which prevails as to the true function 
of color in architectural polychromy was revealed some 
little time ago at a dinner in New York, at which painters 
and architects discussed the absence of scenic interest in 
the architecture of today. Although the discussion con- 
tributed nothing of constructive value to this study, it 
served to reveal the surprising vagueness of the architects 
present as to what should constitute their aesthetic ob- 
jective when creating color effect. They manifested a certain 
degree of readiness to accept the painter’s point of view, 
which was the only one expounded, as to what a polychrome 
building should convey to the observer. The painters saw 
the cities of their dreams a mass of glowing color; archi- 
tectural detail meant nothing more to them than oppor- 
tunities for color elaboration. An architectural scheme was 
merely a subject for imaginative color development. The 
results produced would be attained through those considera- 
tions which regulate chromatic harmony in pictorial effect, 
and every street would be a ready-made pictorial subject. 
Such a dream is impracticable for the following reasons, 
which explain why the painter’s method of effect-develop- 
ment cannot be applied to architecture. 

A series of artistic activities are operative in the produc- 
tion of a work of art of any description, whether fine or 
applied. A minority of the component activities are control- 
ling factors in building up the entity of effect, the remainder 
being either contributory to, or co-ordinated with, them. 





THE INTERIOR OF THE PROPYLAEA (Polychromy by Fenger) 


28 COLORVERREGE 


In painting, color is the sole medium for realizing one of 
the major aesthetic objectives of the art, and for the ex- 
pression of a vital phase of artistic feeling. In polychrome 
sculpture, for instance, no vital element of sculptural ex- 
pression depends upon color for its materialization, for 
color in that relation adds only a secondary and contribu- 
tory interest to sculpture. Color in the painter’s art must 
be a free agent,as the sole means for expressing controlling 
impulses essential to the attainment of the major aesthetic 
objective. The subordinate and contributory function of 
color in sculptural effect, causes its range of artistic expres- 
sion to be correspondingly restricted. The methods in 
which color is both regarded and manipulated when it is a 
free agent ineffect, are totally different from those employed 
when it performs a subordinate function. Architecture, like 
sculpture, does not depend upon color for the expression of 
any essential factor of characteristic effect. | 

The fundamental argument against the acceptance of 
the painter’s point of view in the development of color 
effect in architecture, is that every art has dominant and 
characteristic ideals, to the realization of which all activities 
converge. In no two arts are the dominant ideals even re- 
lated, or the means for their attainment similar. To allow 
the painter’s conception of color effect, which is a dominant 
factor, to govern architectonic results, would amount to 
the subordination of the major architectural objective to 
the minor activity of decoration. | 

When two arts are associated in composite effect, success 
depends upon the manner and extent to which the minor or 
secondary artistic activity makes contribution to the ideals 





POLYCHROME TERRA-COTTA CORNICES (Reconstructions by E. Douglas Van Buren) 


30 COLOR EFFECT 


of the major. Color significance in pictorial expression is 
developed as a self-contained activity, concentrated upon 
realizing the characteristic beauty of the art; no extraneous 
considerations are allowed to dominate it. Where painting 
is associated in acontributory capacity with an art activity 
of a totally different order, the result of the combination is 
judged by an invariable standard. Should the secondary 
interest of painting pass beyond its contributory function 
and become competitive, its development has been ill- 
advised, and the aesthetic value of the combined activities 
is thereby diminished. 

Architectural appreciation is restricted within a clearly 
defined sphere of architectonic interest, and is diminished 
by the dominance of any extraneous artistic interest which 
may be present. Even an intimate connection with historic 
events or illustrious personages, is incapable of influencing 
our artistic consideration of a building. However much the 
idea may appeal to the sympathies of a qualified observer, 
it cannot invest a poor design with an iota of merit, or 
eclipse structural beauty. It must therefore be realized that 
in the development of color interest in a building, no con- 
sideration may enter into the process that does not directly 
relate to architectural embellishment. 


rE cab Reals 


Color Phenomena that are Active in 
Polychromatic Effect. 


IN ORDER that we may create and modulate 
| decorative effect with pigment, it isessential that 
we gain a superficial acquaintance with certain 
active chromatic phenomena, which must of 
necessity be controlled and utilized. In observing the in- 
dividual characteristics of an assortment of colors, assem- 
bled to form what is termed in artistic practice a ‘‘palette,”’ 
we realize that these vary considerably in their chromatic 
intensity, or in other words, in their degrees of visibility. 
In our vision, each appears to possess a different capacity 
for optical stimulation; we are more conscious of the pres- 
ence of the brilliant colors than we are of the more subdued. 
This fact can be noted at any time if we study the painted 
signs which obtrude their unwelcome presence upon our 
notice in town orcountry-side. As those signs are approached 
from a distance, the colors which first become visible are 
those which might be termed “‘pure’’ colors; that is to say, 
the brilliant reds, yellows, greens, blues and violets—in 
other words, the colors of the spectrum. As the intervening 
distance is reduced, other colors assert their identity. These 
are the composite tones, which attract our attention rela- 
tively to their nearness to the prismatic colors, or their 
remoteness from the greys. In a landscape, the red door 
[31] 





Ba POLYCHROMATIC EFFECT 


of a barn isclearly visible long before the etey-shingled build- 
ing in which it ts set. 


THE “RADIANT ENERGY” OF PIGMENT 


An uninformed habit of thought causes the majority to 
identify color with pigments or substances as an integral 
part of their physical constitution. Color is not an attribute 
of substance, but an optical sensation which is produced 
in the retina by the activity or oscillation of the light- 
aether. When a ray of sun-light is decomposed in a prism, 
the sequence of prismatic colors is produced; these colors 
are the component elements of light. The innumerable 
tints which we see in Nature are produced through the 
decomposition of light as it falls upon surfaces of objects, 
which absorb or reflect certain of its component chromatic 
elements. The color of an object depends upon the character 
of its surface. When the surface absorbs every prismatic 
element but one, it reflects that one, and that is the color 
which we see. If, for instance, it absorbs the red, yellow, 
green and violet rays, it will reflect the blue, which is the 
only unabsorbed chromatic element of light, and that is 
therefore the color our vision records. White is the result 
of the maximum capacity for light-absorption, black the 
maximum capacity for reflection. Brilliant colors are pro- 
duced by a preponderant capacity to absorb light, the 
lower toned colors by a preponderant capacity to reflect 
the prismatic elements. 

The varying degrees in color visibility are due to physical 
causes. The scientist associates color with ‘‘wave-lengths.”’ 
Red is the longest color-wave, measuring approximately a 


PLATE. Itl 





THE TEMPLE AT AEGINA (Firtwangler) 


Known as ‘“‘New’’ Temple 





LOEYGHOROMATIGsE ERECT 33 


680 millionth of a millimeter, and violet is the shortest, 
measuring approximately a 390 millionth. The scientific 
method of describing chromatic activity in terms of aether 
oscillation, or wave-length, does not adapt itself conve- 
viently to the designation of the relative values of colors in 
decorative effect. The assertion of those values in artistic 
color effect depends upon the degrees of visibility in the 
colors embodied in a scheme. Decorative force or emphasis 
is relative to the wave-lengths of the colors employed. But, 
when designing polychrome decoration, we do not regard 
color as light disintegrated by the nature of surfaces—we 
regard it as an optical fact. In our vision and mental asso- 
ciation, color is a thing apart from light. It is something 
definite which we see, possessing an appreciable form of 
energy which is a controlling factor in artistic effect. It is 
the reflex activity of light in color, therefore, which con- 
cerns us in design, and this, for lack of a recognized term, 
we will describe as the radiant energy of pigment. So far 
as the scientific aspect of color is concerned, our interest is 
limited to the knowledge that varying degrees of chromatic 
activity exist, and that they have been scientifically reduced 
to numerical denomination. 

When polychrome ornamentation must survive the test 
of distance, as is the case with architectural polychromy, a 
complicated physical condition is involved, which arises 
from the varying degrees of visibility in the pigments 
grouped together upon ornamental motifs; this demands 
the exercise of mature judgment and careful procedure. If 
a repeating detail is treated with two colors in alternation, 
one of which is brilliant and the other neutral in quality, 


34 POLYCHROMATIC ERFECT 


when viewed at close range, the result may be thorcughly 
satisfactory. If, however, the visual range is considerably 
increased, we find that the superior visual attraction of the 
brighter reacts to the detriment of its companion. As the 
distance is increased beyond a given point, the neutral 
shade loses its identity and decorative significance, while 
the brighter remains ornamentally active. 

It is of the greatest importance that we appreciate the 
decorative function of the radiant energy of pigment. If 
we place the most radiant pigment of a group selected for | 
decoration upon a certain detail of a motif, a specific decora- 
tive value will be realized; but the decorative significance 
of the motif itself as a unit of effect will be altered if the 
location of that color be changed. For example, take an 
ornamental design for experimentation, consisting of 
leaves, flowers and stems treated in silhouette, and let the 
motif be treated in a single color of a tone value which con- 
trasts with that of the field. If the smallest or most insignifi- 
cant detail be colored in a pigment of a higher degree of 
radiance than the colors of the motif or field, that detail 
will take precedence of all others in our impression of dec- 
orative importance. This might be described as the capac- 
ity of radiant energy for decorative emphasis. 

In distributing color over architectural detail, we have 
to consider two active factors—degrees of visibility, and 
regulation of chromatic emphasis. Let us assume that 
previous to the distribution of color upon a facade, two 
architectural items were so designed that they had an equal 
effect-value in the general scheme. If one of these be colored 
in a highly radiant pigment, and the other in a neutral 


POLYCHROMATIC EFFECT 35 


color, the equation in architectural value is destroyed, as 
the former acquires greater decorative prominence than 
the latter. 


COLOR EMPHASIS IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 


In the course of the average individual’s experience, it 
usually happens that the routine of business or habit will 
take him past some insignificant group of buildings,—it 
may be a cluster of nondescript dwellings on the side of a 
hill, or a city street devoid of any form of scenic interest. 
If, however, the roof of one of the former be painted red, as 
often happens, or a coat of fresh-looking paint be applied 
to one of the dingy facades in the drab street, interest is at 
once stimulated, and observation automatically directed 
through the medium of color-emphasis to that which was 
previously inconspicuous. If a single post in a fence is 
painted with a bright color, or white, and the remainder 
left in the tone of seasoned timber, that post detaches itself 
in Our vision and assumes individual importance. It can be 
readily appreciated that this capacity of color to endow 
the negligible with prominence, may generate havoc when 
injudiciously introduced into that delicate co-ordination 
of effect-values which exists in an architectural scheme. 

When the architect evolves a structural scheme, he deals 
with a complex assortment of active forces which must 
necessarily be co-ordinated. In the architectural treatment 
of his problem, those forces, and their mutual relation, 
must be clearly stated in terms of effect; that is to say, obser- 
vation should record the existence of the component parts 
in the order of their architectural importance. When we see 


36 POLYCHROMATIC EFFECT 


an excellently designed building for the first time, our 
appreciation automatically notes and appraises its features 
in the following order: we first observe the characteristics 
of the structural mass; next, its proportional sub-division; 
finally, decorative elaboration. In a scheme of such calibre, 
the relative effect-value of every item has been adjusted with 
the greatest care, and it is the quality of subtlety in that 
adjustment which, at first glance, compels admiration. 
When we speak of the relative amportance of items, we refer 
to the proportional degree of scenic emphasis alloted to 
each. Color is the most potent medium for scenic emphasis. 
What will be the result if the decorative activity of color is 
introduced in haphazard fashion into that carefully or- 
ganized system of architectural effect-values? Architectural 
chaos must inevitably ensue, should color emphasis be 
applied without regard for the structural significance of 
the items treated. 

The location of color emphasis in design should there- 
fore be determined with the following points in view: 

(1) Color is the most powerful medium for decorative 
emphasis. 

(2) Color location and elaboration must accord with 
structural values stated in architectural effect. 

(3) Misplaced emphasis destroys balance and rhythm 
in every art. | 

To arrive at a practical basis for establishing the correct 
relationship .between color-effect and architectural-effect, 
we must first attempt to recognize and group the elements 
of structural-effect, as it is primarily upon structural prop- 
erties that color emphasis reacts. In our imagination, each 





RECONSTRUCTION OF POLYCHROME TEMPIO D’AUGUSTO IN THE MUSEUM 
VILEA- GIULIA 


It dates probably from the early part of the sixth century B.C. This reconstruction is of wood 
decorated with terra-cotta nailed to it. This architecture is ornamented with applico terra-cotta 
plaques, a practice which was abandoned when stone replaced wood in the superstructure 


38 POLYCHROMATIC EFFECT 


of the component parts of an architectural scheme is identi- 
fied with a specific architectonic function or idea; this 
circumstance enables us to group the items of the classic 
facade (which we take as the most lucid structural type), 
according to the part each plays in the structural combina- 
tion. By this method of classification, three groups should 
include all items. In the first group would be placed those 
features which perform the function of weight-carrying, such 
as the peristyle, columns, architrave, and containing walls. 
In the second, those features which are supported or ap- 
plied. In the third, those in which decorative expression 
takes precedence of the statement of purpose. In such man- 
ner, the exterior items of the building are arranged in the 
order of their structural significance. It will subsequently be 
necessary to discover with which of these groups color can 
be most advantageously associated. To facilitate this in- 
vestigation, we must examine the valuable records which 
have been accumulated by the Greek archaeologists, a 
résumé of which we give later. 


GL iab Ek say, 


Aesthetic ON in Greek Haase 


» centuries in Greece, the art of architectural poly- 
oe chromy achieved the fullness of its expression; 
JOON uniformity in practice would justify us in describ- 
ing their methods as “‘standardized.’”’ The following reason 
may account for the prominence of polychromy in architec- 
tural effect at that period. The artistic representation of 
natural form may be classified into two distinct types of in- 
terpretation, the decorative and the naturalistic. In the for- 
mer type of interpretation, symmetry, proportional sub-di- 
vision, and balance or rhythm, constitute the major objec- 
tives. In the form finally evolved it is unessential that the 
prototype be closely resembled; as examples we might cite 
the Greek honey-suckle, the Tudor rose, the fleur de lys, 
and a host of other decorative conventions originating in 
natural forms. On the other hand, the naturalistic form 
_ of expression makes selection of individual beauties in a 
selected natural object, with the aim of stating their qual- 
ities in aesthetic terms. In the earlier periods of Greek 
artistic evolution, during the Sixth and early Fifth cen- 
turies, the controlling impulse in artistic creation was the 
decorative feeling, which reveals itself in a multiplicity of 
ways affecting the conformation of decorative masses and 
detail, but is most clearly demonstrated in the treatment 
of the human form. With the advent of the Periclean period, 
the controlling impulses sought a new objective. The ab- 
[39 ] 





40 GREEK POLYCHROMY 


stract concept of ornamental and human form gave place 
to one which assumed a closer relation to nature. This is 
very apparent in their ornamentation in the manner in 
which the acanthus was rendered, and in the modified 
treatment of the human form in painting and sculpture. 
The abstract grandeur inherited from the archaic tradi- 
tion, with its decorative purpose and stylistic development 
of typical form, is superseded by an effort to express the 
subtleties of the individual example, the natural beauty 
of which stimulated artistic creation. Architectural and 
sculptural polychromy were essentially decorative activities, 
making no pretense at simulating the natural coloring of 
the object. When the change in artistic purpose was accom- 
plished in the Fourth century, we find a corresponding 
change in their choice of structural materials for artistic 
manipulation, and an inclination evinced for those which 
had intrinsic value and inherent beauty. The feeling which 
guided the sculptor and the painter of vases at that period 
is discernible in architecture in a greater fastidiousness in 
the refinement of individual form, and in new combinations 
of colored material for decorative purposes which in a 
measure replaced pigment. With this change in aesthetic 
objective we find a considerable diminution in the attrac- 
tion for polychrome effect in sculpture and architecture, 
which is a perfectly logical result. 

The Sixth, Fifth and Fourth centuries can thus be divided 
into two periods, if we classify artistic effort according to 
its aesthetic objective. When the decorative ideal prevailed, 
polychromy was an invaluable medium for the attainment 
of the desired result; but when the prevailing impulse 


GREEK POLYCHROMY 41 


changed its direction in the second period, the revision of 
previous methods for obtaining effect was a natural con- 
sequence. We could not therefore expect to find in the 
Periclean period a continuation of the methods which so 
admirably expressed the decorative feeling of the Sixth 
and early Fifth centuries. In the earlier period, polychromy 
in architectural effect stated the predominant artistic aspi- 
ration in an unmistakable fashion, making an unequalled 
contribution to the decorative quality sought in Greek 
structure. The impression conveyed through color effect 
was then held superior to the association of intrinsic value 
that is inherent in rare material. With color treatment, 
coarse stone faced with stucco became suitable for the most 
grandiose structural purpose. When marble first came 
into use and the effect-quality of material was given greater 
consideration, its intrinsic beauty was accentuated by 
means of a revision of polychrome treatment, but the dec- 
orative quality of the building: still claimed precedence in 
artistic calculation. 

The polychrome principles which the Greeks perfected 
to such an admirable extent, are not to be encountered in 
the later periods. They can be found intact, and in full 
operation, in the earlier periods only, when polychromy 
was a predominant factor in the effect of their architecture. 
Research must therefore be regulated accordingly. 


Wien LION OF COLOR. DECORABION TO ARCHITECTURAL 
Paige Oh LHE “SUPER-BEAUTY OF ARCHITECTURE 


Polychrome decoration is not an integral part of archi- 
tectural effect, but essentially a decorative adjunct con- 


42 GREEK POLYCHROMY 


tributing extraneous interest. As a distinct and individual 
artistic practice, it has the capacity to realize a unique 
type of decorative expression unattainable through the 
legitimate employment of any other means. Decorative 
design, in each of its numerous and different phases of 
expression, is a concrete statement of the artistic capacity 
of a substance. That form of pattern and color planning 
which best reveals the sensuous beauty of silk, when liter- 
ally applied, isimpotent to express beauty in ceramics. That 
quality of technique which has made wood the equal of 
marble as a medium for rendering pure form, debases the 
intrinsic charm of any other material to which it is applied, 
however rare or precious. A decorative impulse might be 
described as ‘‘self-contained,’’ when the effect created is 
independent of any necessity for artistic association. The 
methods it employs for embellishment are determined by 
the physical characteristics of the material employed. Imag- 
inative energy is directed to the enhancement of an acces- 
sory of life with decorative interest. When, however, a 
decorative activity is associated with an art activity of an 
admittedly higher order (as is the case with polychromatic © 
decoration and architecture), creative effort recognizes only 
those forms of decorative expression which contribute fac- 
tors of interest or beauty to the major activity. 

In the complete architectural scheme, polychromy ranks 
as an activity of secondary importance, as compared with 
the evolution of the structural problem, the establishment 
of proportional relations, and the refinement of form. In 
view of this subordinate function of polychromy, it is 
necessary to identify these controlling factors in architec- 











GREEK MURAL DECORATIONS (Poulsen) 


pet 
5 
a 
i 
a 
Ea 
e 





44 GREEK POLYCHROMY 


tural effect which regulate the nature and direction of its 
development, before determining the character and range 
of its decorative expression. 

In each of the fine arts of painting, sculpture and archi- 
tecture, there is discernible in the noblest examples, an 
aesthetic value of a more exalted and abstract nature than 
is attainable in the purely decorative arts. This is described 
by certain writers on aesthetics as the ‘‘Art Beauty.’’ The 
complexity of this aesthetic quantity renders definition or 
description an impossibility as it is the super-quality of 
artistry which exists as a separate entity, above and inde- 
pendent of those individual phases of expression which 
characterize each master’s work. All aspirations that actu- 
ate artistic effort are intuitively directed to its realization. 
In architecture this super-beauty is the outcome of an 
amalgam of all its artistic elements when their mutual 
relation is of a highly perfected order. We are conscious of 
its existence in the superlatively designed structure, but 
are incapable of conceiving it as a separate entity. In the 
contemplation of an architectural work of the highest 
calibre, the Art Beauty operates upon our aesthetic sensibil- 
ity as a sense of beauty, in contradistinction to the quality 
of beauty of the visual order which 1s identified with such 
factors as elegance of form or refinement of proportion. It 
is self-evident that if a decorative art be incorporated in 
architectural effect, its development must be directed with 
subordinate intent, in order that it may be contributory 
to the “‘art-beauty”’ as the major aesthetic factor which 
controls the mode of its expression. 

To arrive at a more concrete idea of the character of this 


GREEK POLYCHROMY 45 


indefinite but supremely important aesthetic quantity in 
architectural effect, the three fine arts might be considered 
in the light of their elemental physical relation. Thus, 
painting is the art of light and optics; sculpture, that of 
plastic form and poise; architecture, that of the statical 
and proportional arrangement of rigid units. In the true 
expression of these arts, there is a tacit recognition in their 
practice, of certain physical laws governing natural phenom- 
ena which assert themselves in artistic effect. No painting 
can rank as a work of art, however exalted in conception 
or skillful in execution, if the laws of optics are defied in 
perspective, or if the projection of shadow does not accord 
with the angle of illumination. A sculptured figure which 
stands out of plumb cannot possibly be ranked with one 
of equal imaginative and technical merit, in which the 
laws of equilibrium are observed. In architecture, dynamic 
laws are controlling factors in the integrity of effect and in 
artistic calculation; for the critical faculty can approve no 
structural combination in which an apparently active force 
is inadequately met, however stable the building may actu- 
ally be. The predominant natural force which therefore 
controls architectural calculation is gravitatton. Archi- 
tectural design conveys the impression that the gravita- 
tional force is anticipated by a preponderance of thrust in 
the reverse direction. Balance in structural design lies in 
that relationship which is established between vertical, 
oblique and gravitational forces. Each item of structure in 
an architectural scheme conveys the visual requirement, 
that its relative weight, or gravitational force, demands 
adequate support. When this compulsory adjustment of 


46 GREEK POLYCHROMY 


natural forces is stated in design, our imagination records 
the impression that a specific structural condition is the 
direct result, and that a state of statical force prevails in 
the structural combination. This apparent structural con- 
dition (which might be described as one of dynamic stabzil- 
ity), isa major objective in architectural design; all features, 
either structural or ornamental, which might react detri- 
mentally to that condition, are intuitively dismissed from 
consideration. That quality of architectonic virility which 
characterizes structures of the highest order, emanates in 
great measure from the impression which they convey, that 
active structural forces are brought into play, and reduced 
to the statical condition through architectonic adjustment. 
It would be presumptuous to assert that the characteristic 
beauty of architecture lies in the sense of beauty which we 
experience in this form of statical force expressed in design, 
but 1t will be found that all elements of structural and dec- 
orative interest are contributory to it. It may be, that the 
experience of pure aesthetic content which proceeds from 
the contemplation of an architectural masterpiece is stimu- 
lated by the existence of this dynamic condition in effect, 
as the visual attribute of perfect architectonic co-ordina- 
tion. Mere structural strength must not be confounded 
with statical force. The former implies a preponderance 
of reactionary forces of a physical character; the latter, the 
aesthetic co-ordination of those forces which record their 
presence in architectural effect. 

Statical force was the subject of philosophical speculation 
for generations in Greece before Archimedes reduced it to 
more definite terms in the Third century B.C. If the Greek 








GREEK MURAL PAINTINGS OF THE POLYCHROME PERIOD (Poulsen) 


48 GREEK POLYCHROMY 


architects recognized this much-discussed physical condi- 
tion as an actual factor in structural effect, we should 
find that structural and decorative activities were directed 
with the purpose of impressing the imagination of the 
observer with the fact that such condition was an objective 
in design. Polychromy as a minor artistic activity of con- 
tributory nature, should in the manner of its development 
bear evidence of a recognition of that purpose. 

We must next consider whether the emphasis of color 
might not disturb the apparent organization of forces which 
we sense in design, by a possible reaction upon those ar- 
chitectonic properties which are identified with items per- 
forming obvious structural functions. It is vital that archi- 
tectural features which typify strength should be endowed 
with the impression of substantiality. Should the decora- 
tive interest of polychromy diminish that impression, it 
must be judged unsuitable to features of such character. 
Imagination intuitively classifies the component items of a 
structure into two groups, consisting of those which express 
structural purpose, and those which proclaim a decorative 
purpose. The ideals of any art tolerate no ambiguity in 
artistic intention. With this point in mind, we will pro- 
ceed to analyze certain Greek polychrome buildings in 
order to discern whether the structural significance of an 
item determined its suitability for color treatment. 





THE SMALL TREASURY, AKROPOLIS (Mtesand) 


PEATERLY 





GHA LE Rel 


The Relation That Must be Established 
between Structural Effect and 
Polychromatic Effect 


rqS WE have already stated, the component items 
| of the exterior of a Greek building may be clas- 
i) sified according to their structural significance; 
they might be grouped as follows: 





. a 
wre 
offs 
er, 


Group |. Weight-carrying items. 

Group II. Supporteditems. 

GroupIII. Items in which decorative effect takes 
precedence of the statement of function; 
purely decorative features. 


The polychrome reconstructions which we enumerated 
in Chapter IV were dissected together with others, and their 
various items grouped on the above plan with the purpose 
of determining the following points: 


(A) Towhat extent did structural impressions influence 
color location? 

(B) Ifthe consideration of structural properties affected 
color location, did degrees of color elaboration 
correspond with degrees of importance in structural 
significance? 

(C) What considerations apparently guided practice? 

(D) Was Greek polychromy a definitely regulated artis- 
tic activity? 


[49] 


50 STRUCTURAL EFFECT AND POLYCHROMATIC EFFECT 


The various items of a temple facade might be arranged in 
the order of their structural significance as follows: 


CLASSIFICATION A. 


Group I. 


Group II. 


Group III. 


Werght-carrying items. 
Peristyle. 

Column shafts and bases. 
Retaining walls. 

Architrave. Corona. Dentils. 


Supported ttems. 
Superstructure above architrave. 


Roof. 


Semt1-decorative features of structural origin 
and decorative ttems. 

Triglyphs. 

Mutules. 

Capitals of columns and antae. Abaci. 

Moldings. 

Gargoyles. 

Antefixae. 

Anthemia. 

Metopes. 

Pediments. 


In those excavations of Greek buildings dating between 
the commencement of the Sixth century and the early part of 
the Fifth century, which have been recorded by reliable 
archaeologists, no color has been found upon any item of 
Group I; upon those of Groups II and III, color has been 


fee LURAL EEFRPECT AND POLYCHROMATIC EFFECT «51 


detected in varying degrees of elaboration. Such unanimity 
in evidence justifies the obvious conclusion that some uni- 
versally recognized convention, or aesthetic conviction, regu- 
lated the distribution of color over the facade. The absence 
of a single exception during almost one and a half centuries 
of intensive structural activity, during which the highest 
order of aesthetic discrimination was exercised, implies the 
recognition of a definite line of demarcation between struc- 
tural and decorative elements in architectural design, with 
the object of determining color location. The Greek avoid- 
ance of color upon the weight-supporting features clearly 
indicates the reason for such procedure; they evidently con- 
sidered that color emphasis, when applied to items perform- 
ing that function, depreciated their visual capacity for sus- 
taining superimposed loads; and that, asa general principle, 
color-emphasis was antagonistic to the sense of structural 
strength. Assuming this to have been the Greek sentiment, 
we should find as a natural consequence, that degrees in 
color ornateness correspond with the varying degrees in 
structural significance which are identified with those fea- 
tures of the facade which were not debarred from color treat- 
ment by reason of their essentially structural character. 
That is to say, Group II should, as a whole, be less ornately 
colored than Group III; we should also find that the sequence 
of items of each group progresses methodically in degrees of 
color elaboration. 

That the accuracy of this surmise might be tested, another 
analytical list was made with the same data, in which 
colored items were arranged in the order of their decorative 
color development. This list begins with those features which 


52. STRUCTURAL. EFFECT AND POLY CHROMATIC EE 


were most elaborately treated with color, proceeding system- 
atically down to those which were habitually uncolored. 
The following list may be regarded as typical. 

CLASSIFICATION B. 

The colored items of the facade arranged in the order of 
their relative color elaboration. 

The sculptures of the pediment and metopes. 

Akroteria. | 

Antefixae. Gargoyles. Cyma. 
Roof. 

Triglyphs. Mutules and guttae. 
Ionic capitals. 

Moldings. 

Capitals of antae. 

Soffits. 

Doric capital. 

Items of Group I, uncolored. 

In classifications A and B,. the items of the facade are 
arranged in accordance with two bases of selection. In A, 
they are in the order of their relative structural significance; 
in B, in that of their decorative importance as regarded from. 
the aspect of color effect. In examining these two lists it will 
be found that the sequence in A is reversed in B. That is to 
say, as the degree of structural significance in the items of the 
facade diminishes, the Greeks augmented their color elab- 
oration correspondingly. 

Evidence of so convincing a nature permits no conclusion 
other than that the architectural polychromy of the Greeks 
was a systematically regulated activity, and that a definite 
opinion determined the relation that should exist between 





+ AMS Aen aa eS EE 


amg es 


BGOUM 





A SELINOUS FACADE 


| A typical restoration by Hittorff, showing designs upon the architrave, corona, triglyphs and Doric 
caps, none of which was decorated with polychromy by the Greeks 


3 404 


54 STRUCTURAL EFFECT AND POLYCHROMATICG EE 


color emphasis and structural properties identified with 
weight-supporting items. This principle, which so rigidly 
controlled their practice, was undoubtedly the outcome of 
observation. They appreciated the aesthetic fact that the 
attribute of structural strength associated with an archi- 
tectural feature of the weight-sustaining class, was expressed 
in effect by certain visual characteristics; and, that the 
presence of color upon the surfaces of such features produced 
an illusion contrary to that architectonically demanded. 
The activity of color in architectural effect asserts itself 
in the scenic emphasis of those parts to which it is applied. 
As that quality of emphasis is active and capable of variation 
and regulation, it must be considered as a decorative force. 
To summarize; color emphasis is an active decorative 
force which asserts itself architecturally in varying degrees. 
It possesses the capacity to produce definite reactions in 
properties that are vital to the integrity of architectural 
effect. Consequently, it is necessary to regulate the activity 
of color emphasis, and to anticipate any detrimental archi- 
tectonic reaction through design, in a corresponding manner 
to that in which the gravitational or any other active force 
can be anticipated in artistic treatment. In the Greek archi- 
tectural system, withits profound calculation of effect, it was 
considered imperative that the function of the most impor- 
tant items of structure should be uncompromisingly stated 
in treatment. This accounts for the rigid line of demarcation 
which was drawn in their polychromy to separate those 
features that were essentially structural from those that were 
of a decorative character, and for the gradation in decorative 
values which accorded with varying structural values. 





POLYCHROME TERRA-COTTA DETAIL (E. Douglas Van Buren) 


56 STRUCTURAL EFFECT AND POLYCHROMATIG FREE 


If the conformation of each item of the Greek facade 
be studied, it will be found that the objective in design was 
the visual statement of structural purpose. The effect- 
content of every item is composed of two elements, the struc- 
tural and the decorative. In Group I (Classification A), the 
structural element is stated to the maximum extent, the 
decorative to the minimum. In Group II, the ratio of the 
decorative to the structural is considerably increased. In 
Group III, the decorative element is present to the maxi- 
mum, the structural to the minimum. The Greeks developed 
their polychrome effect in strict accordance with that ratio 
during the Sixth century and the earlier part of the Fifth. 

If deductions formed from the foregoing observations be 
marshaled with the purpose of forming basic principles for 
the guidance of architects today, they may be seta to 
the following Rule of Polychromy:— 

(a) The presence of color upona weight-sustaining feature 

depreciates its apparent capacity to fulfil its function. 

(b) The application of color to a supported item is 
advantageous, for the reason that its apparent sub- 
stantiality is reduced: this diminishes its apparent 
gravitational thrust, with the result that the sense 
of structural strength is inversely benefited. 

(c) In the polychromy of those items which admit of 
such treatment, decorative elaboration may augment 
as structural significance diminishes in the series. 

The absolute control of practice by these principles is 
very apparent in the polychromy of all Greek buildings 
which have been accurately reconstituted by archaeologists 
during that period when color decoration was a prominent 





THE TEMPLE OF CONCORD AT GIRGENTI 
Used to demonstrate the influence of color emphasis upon structural effect 


58 STRUCTURAL EFFECT AND POLYCHROMATIC ERR wy 


and essential element of architectural effect. Their point of 
view was not controlled by the peculiarities of their individ- 
ual form of stylistic expression. It was based upon considera- 
tions of an abstract nature, which measured color activity 
from a purely architectonic standard. Architectural values 
in design were visualized by the Greeks from very much 
the same standpoint that they are estimated in the best 
work of our day. The purely architectural basis of their 
polychrome method therefore renders it possible to makea 
theoretical application of their system to modern problems. 

In the polychromy of the Gothic periods, the same basic 
relation of color emphasis to structural properties was 
recognized. The decorative features only of a facade were 
considered fitting for color embellishment. Many interest- 
ing and valuable practices characterize the Mediaeval 
method, resulting from a more complete palette and a more 
intimate knowledge of the sensuous value of color. A definite 
relationship was established between color radiance and 
pattern area; the more brilliant colors occupying the smaller 
areas in a design, and the less intense the larger areas. 
According to Viollet le Duc, colors of the palette were 
arranged in a fixed sequence, and allotted to detail in the 
order of their relative areas. Gothic polychromy is essen- 
tially a subject for specialized research, it lacks that abstract 
breadth which characterizes the Greek; its dependence upon 
stylistic premises renders it unfitting for our purpose. 
Craft tradition played an extremely important part in the 
practice of the Middle Ages, being a résumé of the most 
beneficial experience. Greek polychromy was, on the con- 
trary, the outcome of aesthetic argument. 


STRUCTURAL EFFECT AND POLYCHROMATIC EFFECT 59 


THE REASON WHY COLOR CANNOT FIGURE UPON THE MAIN 
WEIGHT-CARRYING ITEMS 

By training and habit of professional thought, the archi- 
tect is accustomed to think of structural values in terms of 
weights and stresses. It may be confusing to many to realize 
that a successfully adjusted structural combination can be 
disorganized through the mere presence of color upon 
certain members; or that the apparent capacity of a member 
to support the weight allotted to it may be reduced to in- 
adequacy by the same means. The vzsual impression is the 
ultimate objective of architectural design. From the stand- 
point of solidity, a structure may meet every requirement, 
yet appear deficient in structural properties. In our appraisal 
of an architectural design, we are influenced by visual 
qualities, not by knowledge of actual conditions. This 
naturally involves the possibility of contradictory values in 
the structural significance of any item, the one actual and 
the other apparent. The former is within the province of 
engineering, to be determined by mathematical calculation, 
while the latter is essentially artistic. If the visual impression 
of an architectural scheme causes us to feel that the struc- 
tural combination is ill-adjusted, the production of con- 
vincing mathematical fact does not mitigate dissatisfaction. 
It is the vzswal impression alone that counts. 

Anarchitectural design in its development passes through 
two distinct phases of effort. The first stage deals with the 
composition of mass and its structural sub-division: the 
second, with the contrivance of decorative interest subject 
to premises established in the prior stage. The imaginative 
development of the first stage is visualized (in the pre- 


60 STRUCTURAL EFFECT AND) POLYCHROMATIG ERE 


ponderance of instances) in monotone, which stands for 
the color of the structural material. All calculations in pro- 
portion, concerning relative areas, spacing, or supports, 
are visualized in that color—thus, the inter-relation of 
architectural values is established upon a color-area basis. 
It is a recognized fact that if a card one foot square be 
painted black, it will appear smaller than one of the same 
dimension painted white. A shaft of black marble appears 
more slender and less substantial than one of the same 
dimensions of white marble. Let it be assumed that in the 
monotone state of design-development, the area-ratio of 
supporting columns is satisfactorily adjusted. If, at a sub- 
sequent stage, the material of the shafts is changed from 
that of the structural material to one of a much darker 
tone, without any compensation in dimensions, the effect- 
ratio which was originally established is thereby destroyed; 
the apparent capacity of the shafts to fulfil a precise dynamic 
requirement (calculated in the structural color) becomes 
inadequate. 

There is another consideration of even greater importance 
bearing upon this problem. This concerns the capacity of 
colors that are massed together to form individual groups 
in the imagination or vision, regardless of their relative 
areas or the decorative importance of the details they cover. 
If a number of variously colored counters be assembled 
into a haphazard group, all those of a color will auto- 
matically form a distinct group in our vision; our observa- 
tion will record the presence of the various colors in the 
order of their brilliancy or radiant energy. If we take a white 
building and color certain details in red, and others in blue, 


Pe nURALYEHEFEGT AND POLYCHROMATIC EFFECT 61 


all the red features will group themselves separately from 
the blue in our vision, and the two groups will detach them- 
selves from the white or “structural’’ color. It may readily 
be appreciated that when we depart from the monotone 
treatment for structures and enter polychromy, this auto- 
matic visual process of color grouping is an extremely 
important consideration, owing to its influence on design. 
As a natural result of visualizing the scheme in a given 
structural material, the imagination intuitively associates 
the idea of structural function and capacity with that color. 
Polychromy, on the other hand, is inseparably identified 
with the decorative idea. Consequently, all colored items 
in a facade will automatically group themselves in our 
imagination as composing the decorative elements of the 
composition, as distinct from those that are characteristic- 
ally structural. Should color be applied to any item or 
group of items which perform vital structural functions, 
these will be removed from their true classification in our 
imagination, and be visually included in the decorative 
group. Thus, by coloring a weight-supporting item, we 
induce a false classification of its function, thereby robbing 
the structural combination of a vital element of strength. 
A photograph of the Temple of Concord at Girgenti was 
used to illustrate the manner in which structural values 
and relations may be completely altered through the appli- 
cation of color to weight-sustaining members. 

(a) This shows the temple in monotone, in the effect- 
value of the structural material: 1t was in terms of 
that tone that the structural combination was con- 
ceived in the first instance. 


62 STRUCTURAL EFFECT AND POLYCHROMATIG IE EERG] 


(b) The visual result produced by painting the columns 
in a dark color is, that they become a separate factor 
in design which disconnects the superstructure from 
the peristyle, instead of being a connecting feature as 
originally intended. 

(c) By adopting a Pompeiian method of shaft coloring, 
the upper part of the temple appears deficient in 
support. 

(d) The color upon the two centre shafts appears to de- 
prive them of their capacity for support: the weight 
of the entablature appears borne by the uncolored 
columns. 

(e) A variation of the preceding experiment. 


GLA ET ERE VTL 


The Technique of Architectural Polychromy. 


ao po LLE conditions which regulate color location hay- 
4 ing been discussed, our next step is to determine 
the manner in which architectural ornamenta- 
tion may be appropriately and effectively colored. 
_ The controlling physical factors are, the radiant properties 
of pigment which affect color visibility in decorative effect, 
and certain optical illusions which result from the juxta- 
position of brilliant or strongly contrasting colors which 
have little harmonious affinity. The decorative disadvan- 
tages which attend these phenomena are, that colors of 
diverse degrees of visibility, located in one plane, appear to 
occupy different planes in scenic effect; and that composite 
colors lose their identity more rapidly than pure prismatic 
colors as the visual range is increased. It is therefore neces- 
sary to devise decorative means for adjusting those apparent 
variations in plane which occur when colors of varying 
degrees of radiant energy are grouped together; and to con- 
trive ornamental methods whereby the chromatic reaction 
of antagonistic colors may be utilized advantageously. 
The architectural effect of a structure is only appreciable 
at a visual range at which a large and effective picture would 
probably be indistinguishable. It 1s consequently necessary 
to utilize colors and decorative methods which, by the force 
of their character, are operative at a comparatively long 
range. It must be borne in mind that colors, apparently 
[63 ] 





64 ARCHITECTURAEFPORY CHROME 


brilliant when viewed in-doors, are considerably reduced in 
intensity when seen out of doors. This precludes the choice 
of delicate colors in the polychromy of buildings of any 
architectural pretension. The Greeks evidently appreciated 
that fact, as their architectural palette is composed of the 
most pronounced colors available, without apparent regard 
to harmonious chromatic relation as judged by our stand- 
ards. The character of their decorative color conventionsis 
tacit proof that they were familiar with the radiant proper- 
tiesof pigment, and saw theurgent necessity for rigid control. 

Their appreciation of the danger of specific color activities 
is responsible for the evolution of two very valuable decora- 
tive practices, which hitherto have been accepted merely as 
characteristic forms of Greek ornamental expression: viz.— 
the principle of color-alternation upon repeating detarl, and 
the convention of the fillet-outline which eliminated the con- 
tact of antagonistic colors. Both these decorative methods 
were devised for the control of erratic color phenomena which 
operated disadvantageously in color grouping and color 
harmony. 


THE UNDER-LYING PRINCIPLE WHICH RENDERS SG @nar 
ALTERNATION VALUABLE IN ARCHITECTURAL EFFECT 


The palette of the Greeks had many limitations and dis- 
advantages, but the soundness of their technique rendered 
it thoroughly adequate to all requirements. The component 
colors were not individually interesting or naturally har- 
monious, as judged by our present standards. They were all 
that were available with the limited chemical means at their 
disposal, and were chosen principally for their comparative 


PLATE V 





A. B.C. Showing the effect of gradated tone upon a flat architectural member. 
D. Illustrating the effect of color alternation upon mutually antagonistic tones. 
E.F.H. Examples of color alternation from Greek terra-cotta moldings. 


G. Terra-Cotta anthemion. 
I. The great gable akroterion of the Heraion at Olympia, color arranged in alternation. 











| adi] 
" walle 
og BE ped 





POLYCHROME TERRA-COTTA DETAIL (Van Buren) 


66 ARCHITBGTURALS POLY GEKKO NI 


permanence and brilliancy. They established no sequence 
in tonal values, and, in fact, seemed to experience no 
necessity for a systematized range of color values. In the 
limitation of primitive pigment, they saw only the necessity 
for decorative ingenuity. We will endeavor to explain the 
principle, or argument, which was probably responsible 
for the practice of color-alternation as a means for chro- 
matic adjustment. 

A color chart is shown on plate V, diag. D, which 
consists of bright red and blue arranged in chequer design. 
These colors were chosen for their mutual antagonism, as 
judged by modern prejudices in color harmony. They vary in 
their degrees of visibility, and possess no common chromatic 
element which might serve as a harmonizing link. When 
placed side by side, the result is a pronounced discord. The 
chart is divided into three sections, the size of the color-unit 
decreasing progressively. If the sections be attentively ex- 
amined in order, commencing with the largest unit, it will 
be observed that the mutual relation of the two colors so 
arranged becomes modified as the size of the unit decreases. 
That is to say, with an increase in the frequency of alter- 
nation in a given area, mutual antagonism apparently 
diminishes. If the process of decreasing the size of the color- 
unit be extended to that stage at which it becomes minute, 
the resultant effect 1s that the two colors become unified in 
a composite color. With a carmine and blue, the composite 
color will be purplish in hue, inclining to a reddish-purple 
or a bluish purple, in accordance with the higher degree in 
radiant energy in either color. 

The colors of the Greek architectural palette could hardly 


ARCHITECTURAL POLYCHROMY 67 


have been more deficient in chromatic affinity, or in a sem- 
blance of order in the relation of their tonal values. No 
other colors however were available, which could stand the 
tests of endurance to light and weather; their decorative 
resourcefulness endowed these with full adequacy. This 
principle of color-alternation, applied decoratively, proved 
very fertile in ornamental suggestion, and examples abound 
which show its application to colors of contrasting character- 
istics with admirable results. On plate V, diags. Fand Hshow 





Color alternation in the palmette 


alternation in its simplest form; in diag. E it is developed 
horizontally and vertically; in diag. J three colors alternate 
in recurring sequence. Diag. I shows another resource in 
alternation. When an ornamental motif which included a 
palmette was colored in two or more colors, the leaves of 
the palmette were invariably painted with two colors in 
alternation. The full page illustration gives a general idea 
of the extensive decorative possibilities of this principle of 
color arrangement.* 


*NOTE:—The Majolica painters of the sixteenth century made extensive use of this principle 
in the coloring of repeating detail upon vases and platters; it was also extensively utilized 
by the Gothic polychromists. 


68 : ARCHITECTURAL POLYCHROMY 


A METHOD WHEREBY THE PROMINENCE OF A POLYCHROME 
MEMBER IN THE GENERAL EFFECT MAY BE REGULATED 

Each item in an architectural scheme must be so colored 
that its prominence in the general effect of the facade corre- 
sponds to its relative architectural importance. If the orna- 
mental detail of a certain feature be colored with highly 
radiant pigments, that item may consequently assume an 
undue prominence. If, on the other hand, it bear colors of 
the opposite character, it may not be capable of fulfilling 
its decorative function in the general scheme. If we accustom 
ourselves to considering the colors of the polychrome palette 
from the angle of their radiant capacities, the problem of 
controlling degrees of prominence in colored members is 
considerably simplified. 

In our illustration we have taken the ‘‘leaf and dart” as 
the motif with which to demonstrate the method of effect- 
regulation. If three colors of varying degrees of visibility be 
chosen for the three component details, this motif will have 
three distinct effect-values, merely by changing the arrange- 
ment of the colors upon these details. In the most assertive 
coloring, the most brilliant colors are placed upon the larger 
details; in the most subdued, the procedure is reversed. In 
our original experiments the three colors most frequently 
used by the Greeks were chosen, viz., red, blue and yellow; 
their color-activity was roughly estimated at 5, 3 and 2 
respectively. The pattern areas were likewise approximated 
as follows: the area of the “‘leaf’’ 7; its surrounding frame 3; 
the dart 1. 

~ With the purpose of ascertaining more precisely the 
actual difference that resulted from the arrangements of 





Illustrating the regulation of decorative emphasis, the rough color location 


70 ARCHITECTURAL POLYCHROMY 


colors, so far as effect-value was concerned, the following 
calculation was made: 


Coloring I. 
AREAS ’ VISIBILITY 
Leaf 7 Aneta Rie ea as 
Frames 3 be sashes oxes ee 
Dart T Yellow sc iex 


Total 46 points in effect-value. 


Coloring II. 
Leaf 7 “BIWGs. 93> 7 5Ke3 eo 
Frame 3 Red etic cy 1s 
Dart t Yellow, 2 ex see 


Total 38 points in effect-value. 


Coloring ITI. 
Leaf 7 4¥ CHOW ia xX 2 
Frame - 3° Bivie wae 3 xe ee 
Dart I Red eemED ease. Ss 


Total 28 points in effect-value. 


The above figures representing areas and degrees in visi- 
bility have no pretension to exactitude; neither is it implied 
that the subtleties of decorative co-ordination may be 
mathematically anticipated, for it is obviously impossible 
to state artistic quantities numerically. When we attempt 
to adjust the relative prominence of a polychrome member, 
we are dealing with two factors capable of actual measure- 
ment; these are the pattern areas, and the radiant proper- 
ties of the colors employed. Effect-value in architectural 


Por MOB eh Olsy GHROMY 71 


polychromy is synonymous with color-emphasis; color-em- 
phasis 1s relative to the proportional dimensions of the areas 
painted, and to the prismatic quality of the pigment. Our 
sketchy calculation is merely intended to show how results 
vary with the juxtaposition of color values upon ornamental 
areas. Io summarize: when prominence is desired for a 
decorative feature, its larger areas must be colored with the 
most radiant color; for the opposite result the procedure 
must be reversed. 


Lee Ese OUTEPNE” 


The term ‘‘fillet-outline’’ is coined to designate that 
decorative linear convention, either colored, embossed,or 
left in the color of the field, which separates one color from 
its neighbor in so many Greek polychrome motifs. It was 
not merely a mode of ornamental expression as has been 
tacitly assumed, but originated in the necessity for modify- 
ing the chromatic clash which results from the contact of 
antagonistic colors, as judged from the artistic standpoint. 

The Greek palette consisted of the following colors: 


Black Green Mulberry 
Brown Purple Red (2 Shades) 
White Yellow-Ochre Blue (2 Shades) 


Though the color quality of their palette may not appeal 
to general modern sympathies, it consists of representative 
color elements which would probably be paralleled in a 
modern architectural palette. There is a close relationship 
between the Greek, Egyptian and other racial types of poly- 
chrome palettes, which seems to prove parallel experience 


72 ARGHITEGCIURAT ROLY GER O MEY, 


as to what quality of color was best suited to long range 
effect. Each historic palette is characterized by a certain 
crudity in chromatic quality. Considerations which deter- 
mine the choice of colors for architectural decoration, are 
the reverse of these which operate when a palette is estab- 
lished for pictorial effect. In the latter type of color effect, 
the common color-factor is, in the majority of cases, the 
medium for establishing chromatic relations; in the archi- 
tectural polychromy of the Greeks and other ancient races, 
that harmonizing factor appears to have been avoided. As 
the term common color-factor may not be self-explanatory 
to those who have not practiced painting, we will endeavor 
toexplain it ina general way. Let it be imagined that a paint- 
ing comprises the following colors: orange, russet-brown, 
ochre-red, olive, golden-yellows, and warm greys—such a 
combination as might be found ina painting of the Venetian 
School. In that assortment, yellow 1s the common factor 
which links them together in harmonious relation, because 
it is an element in the composition of each. In this basis for 
harmonious combination, the color-units tend to merge the 
inherent differences of primary hues, which constitute the 
major proportion of their composition, and the tendency 
to color isolation in effect is thereby neutralized. 

The Greeks, and other early masters of polychromy, 
appear to have deliberately chosen colors which had the 
minimum chromatic relation for decorating their archi- 
tecture. They probably realized that, at all costs, the visual 
integrity of the smallest architectural detail must be pre- 
served when colored. Should colors upon adjoining details 
tend to merge their differences at a distance through the 


Cf 
ee 





Ys 











7, 


q3 
F 


AWS ete 


iINUS 


SEL! 


il. 








(US 


SELIN 


I. 


H.SELINUS., 











TV. MUSEUM IN PALERMD 


VI.MUSEUM IN PALERMO. 


{AUS AKRAE } 


V. MUSEUM IN PALERMO 





i 


ala gtataval 


VILSYRAKUS ZEUS-TEMPEL 


VIN. MUSEUM IN SYRAKUS, 


IX. SYRAKUS. ATHENA-TEMPEL 








YRAKUS 


IN S 


XI. METAPONT “KE. MUSEUM 


CROTON 


POLYCHROME TERRA-COTTA MOLDINGS 


74 ARCHITECTURAL POLYCHROMY 


agency of a common color-factor, the precision of archi- 
tectural effect must be depreciated thereby. 

Our problem in polychrome ts identical with that which 
confronted the Greeks in the earlier stages of their experi- 
ence. They realized the necessity for using strongly contrast- 
ing colors in long-range effect, appreciating nevertheless the 
disadvantages which normally attend such combination. 
Some form of chromatic adjustment is demanded by the 
aesthetic sense. In order that such adjustment may be 
brought about in a systematic manner, it is necessary that 
those phenomena be identified which assert themselves in 
effect under the given conditions. 

When we choose colored materials with the purpose of 
assembling them in harmonious effect, we intuitively place 
them side by side, knowing from experience that it is only 
when they make actual contact that we can judge their 
artistic relationship. Observation has taught us that a 
contact between color areas causes latent harmonious or 
discordant factors to assert themselves actively. To test the 
accuracy of this observation, we will ask the reader to turn 
again to diag. D on plate V—(though a “‘process’”’ repro- 
duction of intensely vibrating colors is hardly adapted to the 
notation of chromatic activities). It shows two antagonistic 
colors making contact on all sides. With continuous and 
prolonged examination, artistic sensibility will record an 
impression that the focal point of chromatic discord occurs 
where the colors touch each other; this experience becomes 
accentuated as we continue to gaze upon the chequers. 

With the aim of ascertaining whether this optical illusion 
is not identified with specific colors, a series of studies were 


i Gehd iE Grn ee Poly CERONLY ies 


made in two-color combinations upon repeating units of 
simple geometric or ornamental form. In every case the 
maximum discord occurred at points of contact. When a 
detrimental factor asserts itself in artistic effect, its elimina- 
tion is an intuitive impulse, which rapidly becomes an 
urgent necessity. In this case, the elimination of the detri- 
mental factor is a very simple matter, as it involves merely 
the utilization of an elementary decorative resource, namely, 
the addition of an outline of sufficient width to separate the 
clashing colors. Broad outlines were therefore added to the 
experimental charts, which produced an astonishing reaction 
upon the previously discordant pigments. It appeared as 
though some harmonizing element had been introduced, 
and in several instances that peculiar charm which charac- 
terizes primitive or oriental enamels replaced the jarring 
note. 

Without trading upon the artistic prestige of the Greeks, 
they may well be credited with so simple a solution to the 
problem, which involved the most elementary form of obser- 
vation and an obvious deduction. They used the fillet- 
outline continuously in various guises, from the archaic 
age throughout the period of their maturity in expression. 
The resourcefulness with which this decorative formula was 
ornamentally applied, constitutes an interesting example of 
the Greek attitude towards any unavoidable physical dis- 
advantage in the media for artistic effect. An inherent dis- 
advantage was regarded primarily as a subject for logical 
analysis and deduction of the most practical character; 
subsequently, it was accepted as a challenge to artistic 
ingenuity. 


76 ARCHITECTURAL PORYCHR@NiX: 


The fillet-outline is most frequently utilized in the follow- 
ing manners:— 

TYPEI. The ornamental motif is designed in silhou- 
ette in such manner that a uniform space is 
left between each detail in the field color; in 
general appearance this form of treatment 
corresponds to stencil patterns of similar 
types. 

TYPETII. The outline is treated in a color different from 
that of the field and the alternating colors of 
the detail. In those repeating motifs which 
are colored with three colors in repeating 
sequence, the outline colors alternate in the 
same color order, but in syncopation with 
those of the motif. 

TYPE III. The fillet-outline 1s carved in relief, or sunk in 
the structural material in a variety of widths 
and sections: it is either colored or uncolored 
according to local requirements. 

Examples of all the above will be found among the illustra- 
tions. 

This convention possesses a decorative capacity of the 
greatest practical value in architectural effect, inducing the 
visual impression that the polychrome ornamentation is an 
integral part of the surface which it adorns. The majority of 
decorative color methods identified with other arts, would 
not be applicable to architectural decoration, as they pro- 
duce the opposite impression to that of incorporation; the 
reason for this is that their effect-quality is zudividual 
rather than auxiliary. The necessity for a complete unifica- 


ARCHITECTURAL POLYCHROMY 77 


tion of architectural and chromatic effect, constitutes one 
of the major difficulties which confront us in the attempt 
to contrive a color technique for polychromy; the reason for 
this is that the character of decorative color effect 1s com- 
pletely disassociated from all that of every other element of 
effect in architectural design, whether structural or decora- 
tive. It may be, that the fillet-outline carries some form of 
corporate suggestion by its apparent kinship with the 
cloitson, causing us to feel that the colors are, as it were 
inlaid and incorporated with the material by means of the 
retaining outline, as they are in certain types of enamel- 
ling. 

It is encouraging to find two such important decorative 
methods as the principle of color-alternation and the fillet- 
outline directly attributable to the so-called ‘‘limitations”’ 
of media and natural phenomena. A vast series of illustra- 
tions exists to prove that these so-called physical ‘‘limita- 
tions”’ are in fact the basis of all that is most characteristic 
and beautiful in the applied arts. 


THE ARTIFICIAL GRADATION OF COLOR TONE UPON ORNA- 
MENTAL DETAIL: THE REASON WHY IT IS INADMISSIBLE 
IN ARCHITECTURAL EFFECT 

The experience of the painter or craftsman in colored 
materials records the fact that the most effective means for 
developing local chromatic interest is through the fabrica- 
tion of tonal variations, for the individual beauty of a color 
is most readily apprehended when we view the gamut of its 
chromatic content. When the architect purposes to develop 
the maximum chromatic interest in his polychrome schemes 


78 ARGHITE@TURAL POLY CHROME, 


he will intuitively turn to this simple and practical resource, 
should no adverse argument restrain him. As it is the 
recognized method for color enrichment in a number of 
decorative arts, why should it not be practiced with corre- 
sponding success 1n architectural polychromy? 

In the historic types of polychromy, flat colors have 
invariably been used. The consensus of general artistic 
experience proves that when a flat color is applied to an 
area without specific decorative intention, it possesses a 
minimum capacity to excite the aesthetic form of interest; 
and, that under similar circumstances, a color with tonal 
variations is endowed with a quality of sensuousness which 
automatically stimulates that interest. In this respect the 
historic record of polychromy is in direct contradiction to 
general artistic experience in other fields. From this we may 
assume that there is some uncompromising architectural 
reason to account for this divergence from a point of view 
which is productive of the best results in other arts. 

On plate III, diags. A, B, C represent rectangular archi- 
tectural members painted with a color in gradated tones. 
The visual impression imparted by that manner of color 
treatment is in complete contradiction to actual physical 
conditions. In A the upper edge appears to project in front 
of the lower; in B the surface appears undulating; in C the 
edges seem to recede from the center. Were a string-course 
to be colored in such a fashion, our visual impression of the 
conformation of that member would have no relation to 
its typical form. The illusory has no place in structural 
effect, and any method of decorative treatment which falsi- 
fies or distorts structural form is inadmissible. If any 


Pen UrE GRU RA POLY CHROM Y 79 


artistic advantage were obtainable by making a string- 
course, or any other characteristically flat member, curved 
or undulating, it could be so carved. If, on the other hand, 
architectural conditions decree that a member be rectangular 
no decorative treatment can be Hees Oelole which causes it 
to appear otherwise. 

This argument alone should be sufficient to prove the un- 
suitability of shaded color for the decorations of archi- 
tectural planes, but the question naturally arises, whether 
greater latitude may not be permitted with purely decora- 
tive detail. Let the palmette be taken as an example for 
experimentation. Paint it with a dark color at the center, 
shading that color to a lighter tint towards the extremities 
of the leaves, with the aim to create a quality of decorative 
interest through tonal enrichment which departs from the 
customary Greek convention of alternating flat colors upon 
the leaves. The optical result of such treatment will parallel 
our experience with the flat member, for the ends of the leaves 
will appear curved forward through the lightening of their 
tone, and the center will appear to recede in shadow. Gra- 
dated color upon any architectural surface, whether struc- 
tural or ornamental, can have only one effect—that of an 
artificial equivalent for light and shade. A decorative alter- 
nate for a result obtainable by legitimate methods can 
have no status in architectural effect. 

In addition, it must be remembered that the apparent 
incorporation of all decoration with the item it adorns, is 
an imperative requirement in architecture. In the shaded 
treatment of the palmette which we have just described, we 
record an impression that it might bea pliable and detached 


80 ARCHITECTURAL POLYCHROMY 


object, recalling bent metal forms affixed to a structural 
surface. The fact that appearances are contrary to actual 
conditions, condemns both the result produced and the 
method producing it. 

It is difficult to conceive any circumstance which could 
justify the use of gradated color upon the exterior of a 
seriously considered structure. The appalling damage done 
to the exterior design of some of the buildings of the San 
Francisco Exposition through the use of shaded color 
upon the cornices, was a colossal demonstration of archi- 
tectural wreckage produced through the misapplication of 
color. 

Remarks which relate to the artificial gradation of color (or shaded color), 


do not concern that form of variegation which characterizes certain structural 
materials, or certain decorative methods for producing ‘‘broken ”’ color. 





TERRA-COTTA AKROTERION, OLYMPIA 





PLATE RN I 





A. Terra-Cotta cornice decoration, Olympia. 
B. Akroterion, Parthenon. 
C. Terra-Cotta rosette, Olympia. 


(Ole bared Pisvike 48! 


The Development of Color Interest Through 
the Contrivance of Plastic Form 


IN the preceding argument it was shown why 
artificially gradated color is inappropriate for 
Ce the decoration of any ornamental or architec- 
2 tural detail. The following is a summary of the 
arguments developed: (1) the resultant effect creates a false 
impression as to the actual conformation of surfaces; (2) 
shaded color upon ornamental detail produces a fictitious 
equivalent for the effect of light and shade which does not 
exist locally; (3) the decorative effect of polychrome orna- 
mentation, and the architectural effect of the detail it deco- 
rates, should be unified; the use of shaded color tends to dis- 
associate them. It was also stated as a general rule, that the 
maximum sensuousness of color is realized when the subtle- 
ties of its tonal capacity are revealed throughcolorgradation. 
When color is a factor of artistic effect, it is impossible 
to ignore the importance of its tonal capacity. Architectural 
ideals preclude the employment of the conventional method 
for developing chromatic beauty and interest by shading 
pigment. It does not however follow that polychrome effect 
should be deprived of an undoubted advantage, if legitimate 
architectural means can be discovered for the chromatic 
development of those flat colors which alone can be used. 
In pursuance of our plan of procedure, we take this problem 
back to the field of simple color phenomena. 
[81] 





©) 


82 COLOR INTEREST 


Goethe, in his Doctrine of Color, writes : ‘‘Colors are the 
Deeds of Light, its activities and passivities.’’ The scientist 
has discovered that colors are the result of varying velocity 
in the oscillation of the hypothetical light-aether. From 
our own observation we know that in the sunlight colors” 
are visible, and that in the absence of light, colors are 
indistinguishable. It is a matter of the most ordinary 
observation to note that the apparent tone of a flat painted 
pigment varies with the quality of the light in which it is 
viewed : when seen out of doors in the sunlight, it has quite 
a different tone to that which it acquires when seen in a 
dimly lighted room. If any bright color be painted upon a 
flat piece of cardboard, and examined beside a window, it 
will be found that as the angle of inclination to the direction 
of light is varied, as many tones of that color will be noted as 
angles are taken. 

If a brilliantly colored sphere be placed before us, in such 
position that the sun’s rays strike it at angles of from 40° 
to 50°, the influence of varying conditions of illumination 
upon the tonal properties of a pigment can be conveniently 
observed. In such position, rays of light fall upon the colored 
surface of the sphere at angles ranging from the vertical to 
the tangential. As a natural result, the tonal variation in 
the flat pigment will range from the brightest tone realiza- 
ble in full light, to its lowest tone in the deepest shadow 
where illumination is at the minimum. In that gamut of 
color-values we will find every chromatic variation of which 
the pigment is capable under a given condition of light. 
Thus, we find that an infinite series of tonal values can be 
produced from a flat color, by mere action of light falling 





FROM OLYMPIA (Curtius and Adler) 


84 GOLORSIN TEREST 


upon the concave, convex, or inclined surfaces which it 
covers. In architectural design, the curving of surfaces, the 
projection of solid masses, and the inclining of planes, are 
elemental decorative resources. In architectural effect the 
mutual relation of planes is stated in terms of light and 
shade. The evolution of ornamental form progresses through 
the employment of that medium when improvements were 
essayed. Thus, in developing chromatic quality through 
conditions of light, deliberately created, we find that we are 
merely enlisting into the service of polychromy one of the 
most pliable resources for architectural expression. 

As the action of light upon variously inclined surfaces of 
a solid form produces chromatic variation in any pigment 
which covers its surface, the creation of color interest does not 
depend upon the manipulation of pigment, but upon the 
contrivance of plastic form. The modification produced by 
deep shadow, and the intensifying of hue where direct rays 
of light strike high relief, are the most advantageous means 
for developing variation in flat pigment. Therefore, the 
conformation of surface in modeled relief must be considered 
with the purpose of developing that precise degree of chro- 
matic interest that is prescribed by the architectural func- 
tion of the member. A lengthy treatise might be written and 
profusely illustrated upon the “‘egg and dart” alone, demon- 
strating the numerous ways 1n which this simple detail was’ 
carved and treated for color by the Greeks, in order that it 
might possess the precise effect-value demanded by local 
conditions. In the case of the triglyphs, it was the channeling 
and chamfering of the surface which made it possible for 
these details to be painted in the dark blue or black, which 


COEORSINUVEREST 85 


constitutes soemphatic an articulation of the entablature. 
By the conformation of that member, and the consequent 
action of light upon the deep-toned color covering it, the 
triglyphs appeared, not as uncompromising dark masses, 
but as multi-toned ornaments. 

From every angle of consideration the process of color 
development through the action of light upon form is con- 
sistent and efficacious. By such means, chromatic variation 
accords with modifications in architectural planes, and the 
difficulty of correlating the two qualities of effect is auto- 
matically disposed of. In addition to this, the most aggres- 
sive color is endowed with a measure of softness. There is a 
tendency in all projected shadows to combine in the general 
effect, regardless of their individual tone; this causes shadow, 
as a distinct factor, to act as a sort of connecting medium 
for all elements of effect that are in any way associated with 
it. Colors in polychrome decorations, which might tend 
to become isolated by reason of inherent chromatic dis- 
similarity, are thus bound together by the common factor 
of shadow. 

The simplicity of this method appears to have been pro- 
ductive of a great number of Greek ornamental conventions 
in carving and modeling, which can be identified with the 
definite purpose of creating tonal enrichment in the colors 
which were subsequently to adorn the forms. Some are 
exclusively associated with stone-carving, others with terra 
cotta; in either case ornamental development states the 
individual capacity of substance, the plasticity of the clay 
lending itself better than the stone to diversity in treat- 
ment. 


86 COLOR INTEREST 


EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATING THE GREEK METHODS ORS a 
DEVELOPMENT BY THE MEDIUM OF LIGHT UPON PLASTIC 
FORM ° 


On color plate III the polychrome treatment of the great 
gable akroterion of the Heraion at Olympia is shown. Its 
dark brown center and two semi-circular bands of the same 
color constitute accents of the greatest decorative impor- 
tance to the polychrome composition of the facade as a 
whole. If the section of this detail be referred to, it will be 
found that the surfaces of the two outer brown bands and 
of the central disc are broken up with three concentric astra- 
gals modeled in high and sharp relief. Were these surfaces 
left flat, with the dark color applied to them of uniform 
tone, there is no doubt that, by reason of the strength of 
color tone and the dimension of these areas, they would 
possess the minimum capacity for decorative association 
with the delicate ornamentation designed to connect them. 
The result of such a condition would be that the effective- 
ness of the akroterion would be heavily discounted. These 
dark color masses are well calculated accents emphasizing 
the apex of the composition, and as such were worth pre- 
serving. By modeling the areas to which the dark color was 
applied, the designer was able to eliminate an inherent dis- 
advantage, and to introduce valuable tonal interest. 

The circular antefixae of this building are a simplified 
version of the akroterion. As the smaller areas of dark 
brown were not likely to assert themselves detrimentally, 
they were left flat. The uniform brown tone formed the 
most advantageous background to the central rosette, 





Illustrating the contrivance of plastic form to develop tonal quality in flat color 


88 COLORSIN THERES Ti 


which possesses delicate tonal gradations through its slight- 
ly curved section. 

Plate IV, diag. A, illustrates the terra cotta cresting 
of a building of the Olympia group. It is an extremely inter- 
esting example of color development by the medium of 
specially contrived modeling, of a character totally different 
from that of the preceding example. Tonal quality is pro- 
duced by ingenious combinations of concave, convex, and 
angular sections in the ornamental detail. The direct result 
of this treatment upon the yellow coloring is to develop 
extremely delicate gradations in color-tone. This extends 
from the tone of the crisply projected shadow to the value of 
the high-light; in the deeply recessed leaves, surfaces curving 
towards the light introduce another quality of tone by - 
reflection. 

The general color treatment is very simple, consisting 
of a prevailing tone of yellow ochre, with outlines and accents 
of red and white. This simplicity in coloring was probably 
due to an intention to keep the effect of this member dis- 
tinct, and in contrast with the cyma, which was almost 
invariably of a striking decorative character. The position 
of this member against the bright light of the sky accounts 
for certain distinctive features being contrived to preserve 
the integrity of color and detail. The red fillet-outlines 
maintain and accentuate those delicate color values which 
are produced with the modeling of the palmette and the 
scrolls. White lines define detail in those places where the 
condition of light would inevitably tend to confusion at a 
distance; the white on the stems between the volutes is 
particularly effective as a means for keeping detail separate. 


VOLORSIN TEREST 89 


The most interesting feature in ‘‘compensating’’ treat- 
ment, however, is to be found in the designing of the ‘‘egg”’ 
in the lowest ornamental member. In any other location 
the color of these comparatively large details would be 
considerably modified by the high-light which would strike 
the upper part and by the projected shadow upon the 
lower. Owing to the halation of the light in its location, no 
tonal variation could occur in the red ‘“‘eggs,’”’ which would 
consequently appear detached from their surroundings 
through color isolation and the uncompromising character 
of their contour. Though the illusory has no function to 
perform in architectural effect, in this instance a decorative 
equivalent was created for the high-light, which breaks up 
the mass of color and forms a connecting link with the 
member above. 

The carved roof decoration of the Tomb of Lysicrates is 
one of the most elaborate and beautiful examples of the 
use of simply concave and convex forms in architectural 
plastic form. A broad fillet outline defines the principal 
details of this admirable motif, as in the scrolls of the pre- 
ceding example, and with the same decorative intention. 
By the employment of this beautiful and efficient decorative 
method, the integrity of intricate detail is preserved and 
rendered effective despite the disadvantages of a location 
against the strong light of the sky. Any other type of orna- 
mental treatment would become ineffective under the exist- 
ing condition. This fine example appears to embody the 
fullest content of beauty realizable with that ingenious 
ornamental method. There is unfortunately no record of 
its polychromy, but the character of its structure and the 


90 COLOR INTEREST 


obvious articulation of the motif for color treatment, would 
indicate that it was assuredly designed for polychromy. 
A speculative reconstruction of its polychromy would be a 
comparatively simple undertaking. 

In our illustrations it will be seen that where one color 
only is used, the silhouette of the motif is slightly modeled 
in relief, the edges being frequently treated with a raised 
or incised outline in order to mitigate color harshness. 
The great number of decorative variations of this method 
precludes their enumeration in these pages. 





SECTION OF CENTRAL AKROTERION 
OF THE HERAION, OLYMPIA 


CHAPTER IX 


The Polychromatic Treatment of Architec- 
tural Detail by the Greeks 


SIRCHAEOLOGICAL data concerning the color 
Ny treatment of the capitals, though spare, is suf- 
| ficient to determine the typical manners for 
S| coloring these features in the three Greek orders. 
In comparing the relative degrees of color elaboration upon 
the three types, and the manner in which decorative color 
results were produced, we find that the broad principles 
which governed polychromy asa whole, were rigidly adhered 
to in the coloring of the capitals. The fullest data is avail- 
able upon the Doric and Ionic capitals, but as stylistic 
expression matures in the late Fifth and Fourth centuries, 
and the decorative attraction of polychrome as a predomi- 
nant feature diminishes, information becomes very rare in 
the Corinthian examples. 

In the Doric order, a minimum amount of color was 
introduced in the capital. This is consistent with the prin- 
ciple that when the impression of strength predominated, 
color should figure to the minimum extent. The simple 
statement of structural solidity which actuated the design 
of the Doric column and capital, would undoubtedly have 
been depreciated with elaborate coloring. The three annulets 
in the echinus were in every instance colored in red; that in 
the neck of the shaft of the Propylaea was blue, with those 
in its echinus red according to the usual convention. As 





[or] 


92 ARCHTTE GRU RA IGs Bien te 


the piers of the antae had a lesser structural significance in 
effect than the columns, greater elaboration was permitted 
for their capitals. A simple leaf ornamentation was used in 
the majority of the latter cases, treated with alternating 
colors separated by fillet-outlines, as shown in III. B., Pl. 
V. This type of treatment is found upon the antae of the 
Parthenon, the Temple of Athena of the Akropolis, the 
Temple of Zeus at Olympia, and in a number of structures 
of the Sixth and early Fifth centuries. 


THE IONIC GA h ia 


It is difficult to conceive a more beautiful architectural 
detail than this capital with the final embellishment of 
polychromy and gold. The capital of the Erectheum which 
we reproduce after Dr. Josef Durm’s reconstitution of its 
color treatment, shows the magnificence of its enrichment. 
The conformation of certain details is directly attributable 
to the necessity for giving tonal variation to the flat colors 
which were to be added to those parts. The form of the 
volutes was accentuated by coloring their outer edges with 
red. As a flat color fillet would have appeared harsh in 
quality, the edges were molded or channelled. In certain 
examples, an astragal follows the convolutions of the spirals; 
in others (the Erectheum, for example) the astragal is re- 
placed by a channel formed by two inclined planes. In the 
former type, the soft shadow falling upon the curved sur- 
face of the astragal, with the bright light upon the reverse 
side, adds considerable enrichment and softness to the red 
lines. An even more brilliant color quality is obtained by 
the Erectheum treatment, as the darkest tone on one of 





ARCHITECTURAL POLY CHROME DETAIL 


94 ARCHITECTURAL] DETALE 


the planes lies opposite the brightest upon the companion 
plane which is inclined to the light at the reverse angle. 
With the turning of the volute, the plane which is darkest 
at the upper part of the capital, gradually passes to full 
light through a transition of tone values in the color cover- 
ing it. The eye of the volute was gilt. As the Greeks evidently 
feared the transition from the richly colored collar decora- 
tion to the uncolored shaft might be too sudden and cause 
the capital to appear detached, the upper part of the fluting 
was occasionally gilt, giving the impression that the capital 
was ‘‘clamped on,’’ so to speak. Great brilliancy of tone is 
obtained through the way in which the inner surfaces of the 
volute were curved to the light. 


THE -CORINTHIAN= GSP ia 


Examples showing the polychrome treatment of the 
Corinthian capital are extremely rare. As many of the finest 
were designed at a period when systematized polychromy 
was losing its attraction and gold was taking the place of 
color, the paucity of data is easily accounted for,—yet many 
must have been colored. A terra cotta capital was fortu- 
nately exhumed at Olympia,— (illustrated upon Plate V),— 
which demonstrates the manner in which the general color 
principles and methods were applied to that type of capital. 
Blue, and probably gold (or its substitute, yellow), alter- 
nate upon the tiers of leaves. These colors are linked together 
with red, which is applied upon the return of all the leaves 
and to their rounded edges. Color distribution is admira- 
bly balanced, and the solution of t his intricate color prob- 
lem is conclusively stated. One feels that had no data sur- 











ecearniincintrinien ia 





(9 2h 











PP ONAS. UO wpteracees 








POLYCHROME ROOFTILES (Koch). GARGOYLE AND CYMA, 
OLYMPIA (Curtius and Adler) 


96 ARCH PEGCTUIRAT DE ATs 


vived, the polychrome treatment of this detail might have 
furnished ample material for discussion, and it is doubtful 
that the courage and ingenuity of the majority of archaeolo- 
gists would have been equal to suggesting anything quite 
as satisfying as the Olympia example, and as thoroughly 
consistent with Greek polychrome principles. 

The conformation of some of the later examples shows 
no sign that the sculpture was contrived with the idea of 
subsequent coloring, so far as we can judge by the acanthus 
treatment. It 1s possible that the leaves were patined, and 
the fibres, edges, and reveals, gilt. The remaining details 
of a purely architectural character, such as the egg and 
dart or guilloche, were probably colored in the conventional 
manner. The theory might also be proffered, that when the 
acanthus was treated more naturalistically, this delicacy 
in treatment was emphasized by the application of color 
to the core of the capital where it was visible. The form of 
the spacing of openings between the leaves in certain ex- 
amples encourages such an assumption. It is not improba- 
ble that the use of gold increased with the lesser use of 
color in the later periods. These opinions are based upon 
the author’s own impressions as to a possible evolution in 
decorative effect, and are not endorsed by archaeological 


data. 
COLUMN BASES 


No traces of polychromy have been found upon the bases 
of any Greek buildings, so far as could be ascertained by 
examining archaeological records, and by consultation with 
those who have made acareful inspection of existing remains. 
The presence of color upon that feature would be contrary 


PLATE, VII 





A. Doric cap, Aegina. (Ftirtwangler). 

B. Typical Doric treatment of pilasters. 

C. Capital of the Erectheum, gold, red and blue. 
D. Terra-Cotta Corinthian cap, Olympia. 


Oh 








TERRA-COTTA POLYCHROME CORNICE OF THE TREASURY OF GELA, OLYMPIA 


98 ARGHIT TEC TURAESDETALE 


to the general principles which appear to have governed 
color location. In certain buildings in which variously 
colored stones have been used, the bases are of a color 
slightly different from that of the shaft. This is the case in 
the Erectheum, where a marble is used which figures in 
other parts of the facade. An example of the serious dis- 
turbance which can result from the treatment of the base 
in acolor other than that of the general structural material, 
can be seen in the colonnade of the Columbia University 
Library. White marble is used, which figures for no other 
detail. Being the only features of that color, the bases detach 
themselves from the tonal plane of the facade, with the result 
that the columns appear deprived of their “‘points d’appu.’’; 
instead of constituting a vital connection between the 
shafts and the stylobate, the whiteness of the marble gives 
the impression that the shafts are separated from it. 


THE ARCHITRAVE 
The architrave was never colored, nor (with the excep- 
tion of the very early Temple of Assos), was it ever orna- 
mented with carving. The shields or trophies which were 
hung upon it do not concern us, as their presence could not 
influence that definite impression of architectonic purpose 
which was so essential to a member which apparently bore 

the entire weight of the superstructure. 


THE TAENIA 
The taenia was usually colored in red. The Temple of 
Athena on the Acropolis 1s one of the exceptions, the red 
band there figuring below the taenia. (See colored plates). 
There was apparently no rigid rule. 


4 i: Fas j Poy ei 
SISSSSSSSSSSSSSLSSSS SSS 


HP on nF 


PRLS Loh Eo 





VoSIMA FRAGMENT. es ge oe wie ~ VI SIMA FRAGMENT AUSGELA. 
MUSEUM ZU SYRAKUS MUSEUM ZU PALERMO. 


tt SR Po ae ee eae Roar Bone ane ‘ tMITR FoR Figt 


POLYCHROME DETAIL 


100 ARCHITECTURAL DET ALE 
DHE TRIG Y TH 


Archaeological research shows that the triglyph was 
invariably painted dark blue or black. The boldness of this 
quality of effect appears to have challenged the speculation 
of archaeologists of the school typified by Hittorff and 
Boetticher, both of whom suggest bell-flowers between the 
flutes as a probable means for relieving the uncompromis- 
ing strength of these strong masses of color. They were 
undoubtedly justified in their views as to the need for 
modifying such prominent color areas—(regarding them 
as of uniform tone)—but they overlooked the fact that the 
Greeks had experienced the same requirement and had 
met it with the flutes. By creating a variation of light with 
surface conditions, through the various planes created, 
they produced the desired result in a much more effective 
way than any attainable through the addition of light 
ornamentation which would have been invisible at a com- 
paratively short distance. The importance of the function 
which they performed in articulating the superstructure 
with their strong color, has been overlooked by those who 
find difficulty in accepting their forceful appearance. 


THE CORONA 

As a capacity to support super-imposed weight was the 
visual attribute of these two members, the Greeks left the 
corona and architrave uncolored. Hittorff decorates both 
in his reconstructions of the Temples of Selinous, and his 
scheme of treatment is a most conclusive argument against 
the probability that these members were originally orna- 
mented. 


j 





— 





POLYCHROME DETAIL 


102 ARCHITECTURAL DETAIL 


THE CYMA 


The cyma is the most ornate of all the polychrome mold- 
ings for the reason that it was an entirely supported mem- 
ber of essentially decorative character. Having no struc- 
tural function to perform, the Greeks treated it with as 
much enrichment as its ratio in effect permitted. The 
degree of decorative prominence which was given to the 
cyma can be appreciated by referring to the following illus- 
trations of reconstructions of temples: the Temple of Zeus, 
the Parthenon, the Temple of Athens on the Acropolis, the 
‘‘new’’ Temple of Aegina, and the small temple or treasury 
of the Acropolis (Wiegand. ) 

The following are descriptions of the coloring of the cyma 
moldings exhumed at Olympia. 

1. Topmost band; pointed black leaves upon red ground, 
separated by a white line: central motif, white silhou- 
etted upon a black ground, the husks of the anthemia 
and the bars connecting the scrolls, red; fret, red upon 
a black ground: square motif, black and white. 

2. Black ornamentation upon red ground. 

3. Topmost band, black, red and white; central motif, 
white on black, the husks of the anthemia outlined with 
red; fret, white on black, red outline around the chequer. 

4. Red and black in alternation upon the leaves of the 
palmettes; ground, ochre. 

5. A black fret decorates the upper member; the band be- 
neath consists of black and red leaves in alternation, 
separated by black lines upon an ochre ground; alternate 
red and black chevrons upon the astragal; the same 
colors alternate upon the scrolls and petals of the next 


PA AAAS | 





POLYCHROME MOLDINGS (Curtius and Adler) 





Van Buren) 


D 


(E 


POLYCHROME ANTHEMIA 


fo bE Vill 


§ 





PORTICO OF THE PROPYLAEA (Penrose) 


| 














POLYCHROME DETAIL 


106 ARCHITECTURAL DE TALE 


motif; the chevrons and leaves of the two lower mem- 

bers are also painted red and black in alternation. 
6.&7. Practically a counterpart of the coloring of No. I. 

Other examples will be found among our illustra- 

tions, all of which are remarkable for the decorative 

beauty and elaboration. 

DEE NOTES 

The coloring of the mutules appears to have been con- 
trolled by the coloring of the triglyphs with which they 
accord. The colors which have been found upon the mutules 
were either dark blue or black, corresponding to those 
found upon the triglyphs. More variation occurs upon the 
guttae. Upon the blue triglyphs of the Temple of Zeus at 
Olympia they are red; they are black upon black in the 
Temple of Athena of the Acropolis; white upon black in 
Furtwangler’s reconstruction of the “‘New’ Temple at 
Aegina; in Wiegand’s reconstruction of a small Temple of 
the Acropolis the guttae of the blue mutules are blue, but 
those beneath the triglyphs are red. A shallow circle is sunk 
in the center of the under side of certain examples, and 
was in all probability gilt. 

ROOFS TILES 

Polychrome ornamentation figured upon the edge of the 
lowest edge of the roof tiles; the projecting under side was 
also decorated. In certain instances the saddle-tile, or teg- 
ula, which spanned the vertical joints, was ornamented. 
The ridge tile was a decorative feature, anthemia being 
attached to it and placed at regular intervals along the sky- 
line. In the early temples the roof-tiles were of terra-cotta, 
in the later of marble. 


a DAM PART EMS OS 


The Polychrome of Architectural Sculpture 


SCHEMATIC VALUE 
REVIOUS to considering those factors that de- 
termine and control the development of color 
effect upon sculpture contrived for architectural 
4! decoration, it is necessary to regard sculpture 
trom the angle of its architectural association. When sculp- 
ture fills an architectural space, it ranks primarily as a 
decorative adjunct to architectural effect;—this without 
prejudice to its dignity as a fine art, as countless examples 
of the highest order testify. An architectural composition 
should bea highly organized entity of artisticeffect, in which 
a considerable number of varied parts perform divers aes- 
thetic functions in a delicately attuned condition of coér- 
dination. As in painting and sculpture, visual effect of a 
specific order is the ultimate objective. In architecture, effect 
is stated with two species of value—the structural and the 
decorative. Certain items of the structure are classed defi- 
nitely in the one category of contributory effect, or in the 
other; while others figure in dual capacity as decorative 
and structural. Design invests every item of the three genera 
with a precise degree and individual quality of relative 
effectiveness which is stated in terms of proportion, projec- 
tion and ornamental scale. As a result of familiarity with 
the higher order of historic architectural examples, aesthetic 
standards have evolved, to which our imagination turns for 
guidance when judgment is challenged in matters of taste. 
[ 107] 










108 ARCHITEGTURAL SCUEE (Ukr 


In purely architectural issues affecting artistic discrimina- 
tion, familiarity with recognized standards facilitates the 
appraisal of imaginative effort; but, when the question 
involved concerns the re-location of lost points of view, 
from which the coordination of associated arts was for- 
merly visualized (as with architecture and sculpture), we 
find ourselves at a great disadvantage in comparison with 
the exponents of former times, equipped as they were with 
the resources of traditional lore. This is one of the pernicious 
results of modern conditions affecting artistic creation, 
which fosters the isolation of arts which in all previous 
ages were intimately associated through their partnership 
in a common artistic objective. This condition prevails 
today to such an extent that the mental stress of abnormal 
effort harasses the mural-painter and sculptor in problems 
of architectural decoration, which in historic times were 
approached by a habit of consideration. How many of 
those painters and sculptors whose works figure in modern 
buildings have but the most elementary knowledge of archi- 
tecture—if any? Every item of effect that is incorporated 
in an architectural composition must possess a formal or 
schematic value, whether it be a mural-painting, a piece of 
sculpture, or an architectural detail. A definite effect-ratio 
is prescribed for every such feature in the complete artistic 
impression; this is determined by the aggregate effect-value 
of those architectural items that are visually associated 
with it. Such being the case, how can architectural sculp- 
ture be so composed as to perform a precise function, when 
those values and premises that prescribe its range of expres- 
sion are unintelligible to the sculptor? 


‘powosysAjod AjjeulsiigQ, =‘ padsuvisesyy 
VIAWATO ‘SNAZ AO AIdNAL—dNOUD LNAWIGAd NYALSAM 





110 ARCHITVEGTURAL SGU TiAl R E 


Where we find sculpture and architecture combined in 
buildings of the best period of Greek, Gothic, Renaissance, 
and even Georgian architecture, we sense that the sculptors 
were impelled by the consciousness of an imperative archi- 
tectural obligation. We intuitively feel that they express 
themselves primarily in architectural terms; that the de- 
termination of scale, the conformation of detail, massing 
of shadow, and silhouette of form, were all devised to con- 
tribute to structural effect, and that the building had not 
been considered by them as a scheme for furnishing pedes- 
tals, niches and backgrounds for sculpture. The reason 
for that perfect attunement in sculptural and architectural 
effort in former times was, that through the close inter- 
relation of those arts, formal aesthetic values were intuitively 
and accurately appreciated. The architect anticipated in 
the terms of his own art the exact contribution that the 
sculptor would make to his composition; the sculptor on 
his part appreciated the precise function that his work 
should perform in its architectural entourage. 


SCHEMATIC OR. FORMAL VALUES IN ARCHITECTURAL 
SCULPTURE 

In the artistic combination of integral parts which exists 
in a structure contrived to achieve architectural effect, 
every item is alloted a definite quota of effectiveness. That 
proportional degree of effectiveness which each item pos- 
sesses is what we term its “‘schematic”’ value. When a dis- 
tinctive artistic result is contemplated, its realization de- 
pends upon the judgment with which these proportional 
relations are established between various qualities and 





POLYCHROME SPHINX 
Corner akroterion of the temple of Naxos, Delphi 


BZ ARCHITECTURAL SCULFP SURE 


factors in effect. The schematic value of each architectural 
or decorative item requires individual consideration, in a 
manner corresponding to that in which the proportional 
measures of ingredients are calculated in a chemical formula 
intended to produce a compound endowed with specific prop- 
erties. If in either case an appreciable alteration is made 
in the ratio of an important element, it is more than prob- 
able that the ultimate result will be considerably modified. 
When sculpture is associated with architecture, the entity 
of effect contemplated is of a purely architectural charac- 
ter—not a species of duet between two arts. The same scale 
of schematic valuation which measures aesthetic prop- 
erties in every architectural item in the composition, ap- 
praises also the effect-value of its sculpture. In the develop- 
ment of the plastic theme, the final effect registered must 
conform to a precise schematic value prescribed by archi- 
tectonic premises. 

To achieve successful results in sculptural polychromy it 
is essential to realize clearly the meaning of schematic value. 

The schematic values of structural or decorative items 
are appraised in accordance with the order in which they 
make demands upon the imagination when contemplating 
the structure. Features of the higher values obtrude them- 
selves upon the observation, while those of the lower call 
for a deliberate concentration of attention before their full 
significance can be grasped. It is obvious that sculptural 
problems relating to architecture must be approached 
from the architectural angle. When the sculptor of archi- 
tectural decoration once appreciates the meaning of sche- 
matic value he will recognize no other basis for artistic cal- 


PEATE 1X 


ica 
ieeeter 





“THE INTRODUCTION OF HERAKLES TO OLYMPUS” (Rudolph Heberdey) 


Pediment sculpture from an early unnamed Temple on the Akropolis 








POLYCHROME HEAD OF THE CHARIOTEER, DELPHI 


114 ARCHITEGTURAL SCULETURE 


culation. A vast number of buildings in the historic styles 
exemplify that species of formal value with which sculpture 
must be invested in its architectural incorporation. In fact 
it is difficult to discover instances in which the sculptor 
has shown himself indifferent to his architectural respon- 
sibilities. Take as an example the Portico of the Maidens 
of the Erectheum, and consider their schematic relation to 
the architrave and to the main structure. Despite varia- 
tions 1n poise and in the disposition of their draperies, each 
figure realizes an exact and equal schematic value. We are 
conscious of the constant influence of the architectural 
characteristics of the structure upon the sculptor’s imagina- 
tion, and that through the association of the two ideals, 
sculptural expression became invested with architectonic 
significance. The result of this mental codrdination is, 
that these exquisite figures are essentially architectural 
items. The antithesis and negation of that quality can be 
observed in the figures that are placed over the cornice of the 
New York Public Library. 

In the frieze of the Parthenon we find another denomina- 
tion in schematic terms contrived with inimitable skill, 
in which a preordained architectonic value is sustained 
uniformly throughout its length despite the infinite variety 
in the grouping of figures and horses. The pediments dem- 
onstrate another form of schematic value. The lack of 
authentic information as to the original composition of the 
groups, deprives us of the full appreciation of that perfec- 
tion in adjustment which their sculptors undoubtedly 
achieved in the solution of this most complex problem. 
Reconstructions such as those of Furtwangler for the Tem- 





KROPOLIS 


A 
d 


NEEL 


FIGURE FOUND O 


10 


Full polychrome per 





9. 10. 


DETAILS OF SEA-BIRD DECORATION (Wiegand) 
From the cornice soffit of the Temple of Athena 





POLYCHROME DETAIL (Wiegand) 
From the Triton pediment, Akropolis Museum 


118 ARCHITECTURAL sCULPIURE 


ples of Aegina and Aphaia, give a perception of the coordina- 
tion in values that was established between the pediment 
as a decorative unit, and the composition as a whole. In 
the metopes that have survived from the great Doric 
temples, we can study the manner in which the prescribed 
formal value was maintained in each repeating space, none 
of which takes precedence of its companions in its degree of 
effectiveness. There can be no doubt that the statement 
of schematic values in compositions for pediments and 
metopes was facilitated by the use of the colored back- 
grounds upon which they invariably detached themselves. 
The colored field rendered those spaces separate units of 
effect; in their decorative development design was reduced 
to terms of motif and field by the detachment of the sub- 
ject upon the colored ground. A colored ground activates 
our sensibility under certain circumstances, when decora- 
tive units are to be arranged within a given space. A simple 
experiment will demonstrate this. First, take a small rec- 
tangular sheet of white paper and place it upon a larger 
sheet of the same proportions and a slightly different tone. 
Then duplicate the smaller piece of white paper, but sub- 
stitute a colored sheet for the larger one. If in the first case 
the smaller piece is not exactly centered, or its edges quite 
parallel or at 45 degrees to those of the larger sheet, it will 
be found that we feel only a fraction of the compulsion to 
make geometrical readjustment that will be experienced 
if the small white square is similarly placed upon the col- 
ored sheet. Color must obviously have been an extremely 
active factor in procuring that admirable adjustment of 
schematic values which the Greeks achieved in their archi- 





THES PORTICO OF (THE ERECTHEUM 


Ilustrating the manner in which a uniform schematic value was maintained in each figure, despite 
the variation in detail and pose 


120 ARCHITECTURAL SCULR h 


tectural sculpture; for this reason we have endeavored to 
explain the schematic basis for aesthetic appraisal. 

In the treatment of sculpture intended for polychromy, 
the conformation of detail must be considered from a 
separate point of view, which requires that its technique 
differ essentially from that which distinguishes the prevail- 
ing mode today; we refer to that school which 1s typified in 
its structural ideals by the admirable works of Rodin. We 
will go so far as to state that sculptural expression and 
technique of that order is the antithesis in quality to that 
which embodies basic architectonic and polychromatic re- 
quirements. : 

The visual integrity of all detail is a fundamental require- 
ment in architectural effect. This must be maintained 
irrespective of the extent to which a detail may be subordi- 
nated in the general impression conveyed by the structure 
as a whole. In the modern sculptural manner to which we 
refer, certain aesthetic qualities are sought which would 
be unattainable with that uncompromising statement 
of form in detail which characterizes purely architec- 
tural treatment. The points of view from which its tech- 
nique and feeling are evolved, differ radically from those 
taken by the Greek and Gothic sculptors. During the 
creative stages of sculpture of all historic schools, the action 
of light upon plastic form was regarded subjectively, as the 
medium wherewith conditions of development were checked, 
and the final result recorded. In the modern school, on the 
other hand, the creation of conditions of illumination upon 
sculptural mass 1s objective, constituting one of the major 
aims in effect. The viewpoint of the painter seems to have 





HEAD OF A YOUNG MAN, AKROPOLIS MUSEUM 


Polychrome sculpture 


122 ARCHITECTURAL SCULPTURE 


been cultivated by the exponents of that school, in questions 
concerning the physical relation of plastic form to chiaro- 
scuro. The mutual relation of planes, the grouping of mass 
and detachment of forms, are considered from the angle of 
their capacity to produce crystallizations of light, or tonal 
quality with shadow. Thus the statement of the precise 
individual form of each anatomical part of the human 
structure that is visible, assumes an importance that is 
secondary to the transition of light upon its surface. 

The modern quality of plastic expression is unfitting for 
polychromy for the following reasons. Color accentuates 
the superficial form of the area it covers, causing the latter 
to assume an individual existence in the entity of effect. 
Let an experiment be made to prove this statement with a 
white plaster cast of a head. By painting the lips red, it will 
befound that their actual form will assert itself with a totally 
different significance from that expressed in the monotone 
state. In the sculptural technique of former ages which is 
identified with polychrome treatment, we remark a concen- 
tration of effort directed to the precise statement of individ- 
ual form in all detail to be colored, in anticipation of this 
accentuation of superficial form through the subsequent 
application of color. Locks of hair do not lose themselves 
upon brow, cheek or neck; the iris and pupil are carefully 
defined; the eyebrows clearly indicated for the color line 
which was to cover them; the boundaries of the lips left no 
doubt in the colorist’s mind as to the area to be colored. 
This distinctive technique is usually classed as typifying 
the semi-archaic sensibility to plastic form. This may be 
the case, but it is primarily the sculptural technique for 


THESEUS AND ANTIOPE 
Polychrome sculpture; from the pediment of the Apollo Temple in Eretria 





124 ARGHITEGIURASsCU ERR hae 


polychromy, and was evolved in that relation. It was based 
upon observation of the phenomenon which color produces 
in artistic effect, when it is applied to certain parts of a 
sculptural subject, creating the impression that the individ- 
ual form of the colored features is accentuated and separately 
asserted. Had the boundaries of color areas not been estab- 
lished in Greek sculptural treatment, the subsequent appli- 
cation of pigment to indefinitely determined form would 
have been productive of the most erratic results. The fact 
can readily be realized, that polychromy cannot be advan- 
tageously associated with any form of sculptural feeling or 
technique which fosters ambiguity in the definition of form 
or detail to be treated with color. 

During that period when polychromy was considered an 
essential element of sculptural effect in Greece, extending 
from the archaic ages down to the early part of the Fifth 
century B.C., the calculation of schematic value was not 
restricted to problems appertaining to the effect-value of 
figure compositions in architectural spaces, but also influ- 
enced the conformation of all sculptural detail to be colored, 
whether anatomical or accessory. 

In composite artistic effects, the basis upon which its 
elements are selected and adjusted, corresponds in essentials 
to that which regulates combinations of sound in a musical 
key. In all musical composition combined sound is regu- 
lated by the arbitrary ruling of key; that is to say, in a 
motif or phrase written for the orchestra in the key of F, 
the part for the violins may not be simultaneously played 
in that of D. In the complete polychromy effect of a Greek 
fagade, a definite key of effect was stated visually in the 





FIGURE GF A YOUNG:GIRE 


Polychrome sculpture in the Akropolis Museum 


126 ARCHITEC ERA Sera ee 


scale of its polychrome ornamentation and in the method 
of its chromatic subdivision. [t was only by the exclusive 
use of those resources and variations that were legitimately 
associated with that key, that the Greek sculptor produced 
such homogeneous results; his trained eye acquired the 
sensibility of the musician’s ear. The key of effect of a 
polychrome facade was unmistakably stated; its units of 
decorative expression were characteristic in form, sculptural 
technique and color-subdivision. The complete visual result 
constituted an entity of decorative expression which could 
be confounded with no other, as unmistakable as the com- 
mon chord of a musical key, and as inflexible in determining 
the suitability of accessory effects. Underlying the Greek 
sculptor’s creative effort was the dominant consciousness 
of this virile key in decorative values. He intuitively real- 
ized that the capacity of his work for artistic incorporation 
in the architectural effect, depended absolutely upon its 
conformity with that key of architectural color expression. 
He therefore concluded that the safest and most direct 
method wherewith to establish the essential connection 
between architectural and sculptural effect, was through 
the cultivation of sympathetic decorative feeling; a quality 
of interpretation in plastic form was developed, which had 
an ornamental relation in scale and color treatment to 
those architectural features which most emphatically stated 
the key of effect. Thus, in the Greek pediments, we find that 
the colored parts of the human form, and those accessories 
which were incidental to the portrayal of deities, heroes and 
others, had a purely ornamental significance in the general 
effect. Form was so simplified, that when colored, its area 


eau 
a 


Tere 
cae 





POLYCHROME METOPRE 
Temple at Selinous, Palermo 


128 ARCHITEC RURAL SCUPP TG KT 


told as a decorative unit of an unmistakable schematic 
value. The development of typical form was a result in the 
treatment of detail in the figure; this can hardly be described 
as conventionalization, by reason of its close relation to 
natural form, and the variety which was developed in indi- 
vidual interpretation. 

During the polychrome period (strictly speaking), sculp- 
ture was intimately associated with architecture, as the 
majority of works were produced for the decorations of 
buildings, or for the embellishment of their precincts. This 
fact alone accounts for the extent to which the purposive 
activity of Greek sculptors calculated effect-values upon a 
schematic basis. This is apparent in all details, and can be 
appreciated in the manner in which the hair of the male 
and female figures is treated. In the former, masses are 
clearly defined and decoratively balanced; in the latter, long 
braided strands are often symmetrically arranged upon the 
shoulders, as can be seen in the polychrome figures of the 
Athenian Akropolis, and in the Neapolitan Artemis. Had 
less restraint been exercised in the decorative balance of 
these colored masses, they would possess only a small pro- 
portion of their schematic significance. The orderly fashion 
in which the folds of precisely pleated draperies are arranged, 
with alternating views of the inner and outer surfaces of 
the garments, demonstrates the concern of the sculptor in 
providing decorative areas upon which the colorist might 
advantageously develop polychrome decorations of definite 
schematic value and interest. 

In the sculptural technique of Greek polychrome figures, 
we find many conventional methods for interpreting ana- 


aac trav nannies 


ne ee RNAI NNN A 





POLYCHROME SCULPTURE 


Showing drilling for riveting metal upon the helmet and for ear-rings. Pediment of Temple of Aegina 


130 ARCHITECTURAL SCULERIGRE 


tomical detail which were contrived exclusively for poly- 
chromy. In typical polychrome sculpture, the boundary of 
the iris of the eye is indicated with a sharply sunken line, 
and the pupil often indicated with a drilled hole. Examples 
of these features can be found in the Triton group, in many 
of the Gorgon heads, and in various heads of the late Sixth 
and early Fifth centuries. A line in many cases marks the 
outer form of the lips, showing precisely just how far the 
color should extend. The locks of hair were so carved as to 
produce the maximum color variation in the flat tint which 
covered them, through the action of light upon the sharply 
carved locks which lay beneath the pigment. In the treat- 
ment of accessory decorative detail, the motifs were usually 
counter-sunk or traced with a fine sunken outline, their 
scale corresponding with that of adjacent architectural 
detail. The patterns painted upon the draperies were treated — 
in like fashion; geometrical forms were counter-sunk, but 
freer details, such as conventionalized floral motifs, were 
slightly raised in the center of the countersunk area; the 
edges of both types of decoration were rectangular. The 
advantages that were derived in the chromatic quality of 
the colors subsequently applied, have been explained when 
describing similar practices applied to architectural detail. 
Dr. Lermann, in an admirable work, has reconstituted the 
patterns which decorate the early polychrome figures; these 
are of the greatest decorative and archaeological interest, 
showing that the Greek sculptors adapted the textile pat- 
terns of their day, as their drapery decorations are absolutely 
identified with the weaver’s craft; they reveal a type of orna- 
mental development in geometrical form totally different 





, ERECTHEUM 


CARYATID 


JSEUM, NAPLES 


red for polychrome deco 


Al 


N 


L 


ARTEMIS AT NATIONA 


ration 


COMELIY 


Drapery 


132 ARCHITECTURAL SCULPTURE 


from those with which we are so familiar in Greek architec- 
ture, ceramics and bronzes. The use of precious metals is 
clearly indicated in the condition of some of the earlier 
figures, which retain the holes drilled to receive rivets secur- 
ing the gold ornamentation; the Athena which is the central 
figure of one of the Aegina pediments illustrates this; her 
ears are drilled for metal ear-rings. 

The colors which the Greeks employed for sculptural 
detail were identical with those used for architectural dec- 
oration. Naturalism, in the sense of choosing tints which 
had a correspondence with the colors of Nature, was appar- 
ently a negligible consideration in the creation of poly- 
chrome effect. We find the hair and beard sometimes colored 
in red and blue in pediments where black and brown appear 
upon other details, for the sole reason that a better bal- 
anced distribution of color was realized with red or blue 
figuring at the place occupied by the head. A unified sche- 
matic value, evenly distributed throughout the area of the 
pediment, was the major objective in composition and poly- 
chromy. This could only be produced through a carefully 
adjusted balance of color masses upon detail, as a predomi- 
nance of any color in any particular part of the composi- 
tion would create a different effect-value to that established 
upon adjacent areas. The manner in which the composi- 
tion was contrived to provide for this even distribution of 
color and decorative interest, is one of the great artistic 
achievements of the Greeks. 

In the color plate illustrating R. Heberdey’s reconstruc- 
tion of the pediment group representing ‘The Introduction 
of Herakles into Olympus,’’ we behold a fine example of the 


(upmaay “A “Aq XQ pamnjysuoray) NOILVINANVNAO ANAdVAd 


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= 
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ye 
Cred 
“we ag SO? 


Ff 


ae: 


134 ARGHIPE CTO RATIBSC Ul ranUis 


full polychrome manner practiced with the use of tufaceous 
stone as the sculptural material. The carving of the features, 
draperies and accessories is treated in the manner pre- 
viously described. The bold molding which follows the rake 
of the cornice is characteristic of the manner in which pedi- 
ments were finished at the inclined edges in the Doric order. 
This member wascreated for a very practical purpose; under 
certain circumstances the colors which figured upon parts 
of the composition tended to associate themselves in an 
unforeseen way with similar colors upon adjacent archi- 
tectural detail, with which they had no architectural con- 
nection; this strongly colored molding confined the decora- 
tive effect of the pediment within its prescribed sphere. 
Light red and light blue are the only colors which have been 
so far identified with the background of the pediment. 

Collignon’s description of the coloring of the ‘““Typhon”’ 
pediment group gives a concise idea of the color effect devel- 
oped in figure compositions of earlier periods. “‘Flesh, red- 
dish in tone; globe of the eyes yellow, iris green, with a hole 
in the center filled with black; black outlines to the eyebrows 
and eyelids; hair and beard bright blue at the time of exca- 
vation, which disintegrated later to a greenish tone; circle 
of brown around the nipples. The colors decorating the 
triple tail of the serpent are arranged in stripes, one red 
between two blue. Red and blue alternate upon the feathers 
of the Typhon and on the scales of the Triton.” 

When the use of marble superseded that of the tufaceous 
stone, there was a natural alteration in the manner in which 
detail was contrived to carry color, and also in the propor- 
tional amount of color introduced. If we compare the 


Fig, 276, — Téte polychrome d' Athena Parthe 


Lrouvee & Rome. (Musée de Berlin 


Dapres les slatehe Dirakinnele ? 5 t: TRAE, 





POLYCHROME, DETAIL 


136 ARCHITECT URALSsS CULPA URE 


“Typhon” group, which is typical of the tufaceous stone 
color technique, with that of the marble groups in the 
Aphaia pediments, as reconstructed by Furtwangler, the 
difference between the decorative quality of the two modes 
will be apparent. The solid masses of color which covered 
almost the entire surface of the tufaceous stone are reduced 
to the minimum with the employment of marble, and poly- 
chrome interest 1s centered upon the patterns which adorn 
draperies and accessories, in order that the fine quality of 
the marble might be fully appreciated. The crude whiteness 
of the white marble was lowered 1n tone with a patine, which 
permitted its amalgamation with the other colors in effect. 

In anticipation of the obvious criticism that this brief 
and inadequate treatise upon sculptural polychromy is in 
fact a record of the early Greek practice, we will give the 
same reason for procedure which we gave in the case of archi- 
tectural polychromy—namely, that the Greek system alone 
is based upon those fundamental aesthetic considerations 
which place method before stylistic feeling. In no other 
racial type of sculptural color effect do we find the develop- 
ment of composition, the treatment and quality of detail, 
and the distribution of color, so absolutely regulated by 
architectonic value. As the coordination of schematic val- 
ues is the ultimate criterion of technical achievement, we 
feel that observation and study is best directed to the 
analysis of a method which is founded upon their recogni- 
tion. There is no detail of Greek practice which the sculptor 
of today may discard as negligible, and which will not be 
of the greatest practical value in the polychrome design of 
sculpture in any style whatever. 


IHd THd 


‘ 


juounpad swoiysAjog 


SNVICIND SAH DAO sAanSy aa 





138 ARGHITEC TURE SCULPALURE 


For the guidance of those architectural sculptors for whom 
the problem of polychromy is new, we have attempted to 
stress and illustrate those factors which regulate the success 
of effect. These in summary are as follows: 

(1) That the main decorative objective in architectural 
effect must be recognized. 

(2) That the architectural environment of the contemplated 
sculpture must be carefully analyzed, in order that the 
requisite scale and degree of decorative emphasis may 
be visualized in advance. 

(3) That the sculptural theme must state a definite sche- 
matic value in the architectural composition as a whole. 

(4) That color distribution is a major consideration in the 
allotment of decorative interest. 

(5) That adaptability for coloring is an essential objective 
in the interpretation of form. 


Liab Sea ES | 


Some Literary Works Dealing with the Poly- 
chromy of Greek Architecture and 
Sculpture 


oe eeNE of the main difficulties encountered during 
the initial periods of polychrome research, was 
J] the contradictory nature of archaelogical obser- 
Ed] vation as recorded in various works of reconstruc- 
tion. This investigation was undertaken with the purpose of 
substantiating a conviction of the author, that polychromy 
must necessarily have been a systematized practice. In a ra- 
cial type of architectural design which was as methodically 
ordered as the Greek (to the extent of limiting expression 
to three species of treatment), it is inconceivable that the 
emphasis of color could have been fancifully applied. As a 
natural sequence to this opinion, it was felt that the con- 
sideration of decorative color values must have been sub- 
jected to an aesthetic discrimination of a nature corre- 
sponding to that which was responsible for their subtle 
architectural adjustments. 

In the first place, study was concentrated upon a few 
works of considerable repute, handsomely printed and 
compiled by eminent authors. Great disappointment re- 
sulted, as the contradictory nature of data contained therein 
showed little evidence to endorse systematized procedure. 
In fact, it pointed in the opposite direction. It appeared at 
first as though the theory were indefensible, but conviction 





[139 ] 


140 GREEK ARCHITECTURE 


survived this apparent set-back. Further investigation made 
of archaeological works of later date and of a more scientific 
character, produced most encouraging results. After col- 
lating all the data found upon polychromy in the more 
recent works, and making a better informed analysis of 
the writings and diagrams first consulted, it was found 
that in the latter, the exceptions first noted were not based 
upon observation of fact, but were mere speculation. Hit- 
torff, the pioneer of Greek architectural polychromy, proved 
the most flagrant offender in this respect. He had the good 
fortune to record the great discovery of the Selinous group 
of temples, the remains of which showed considerable evi- 
dence of the original color treatment upon buried fragments. 
Asan architect of great experience and erudition, he grasped 
the extremely important part which color had played in 
Greek architectural effect. Under the stress of new-born 
enthusiasm he was impelled to present to contemporaries 
his conception of the full color treatment of the buildings 
excavated. He had no hesitation in crediting the Greeks 
with his own inventions where data was missing; with the 
result, that subsequent discoveries and a consequent deeper 
knowledge of the subject rendered his work of negligible 
value. He had no conception of the possibility of effect- 
regulation, or of the reaction of color emphasis upon archi- 
tectonic properties in visual effect. With this lack of intui- 
tion in essentials, erroneous deduction was inevitable. The 
prestige which his work acquired, and the fascinating prac- 
tice of making imaginative flights from one little island of 
data to the next, appealed so highly to the temperament of 
his compatriots, that a school of romantic archaeology came 


(irs bobs tees Cel dels (ei U E 141 


into vogue. It became the fashion to reconstitute the dec- 
oration of temples showing slight traces of color, from that 
point of view which would actuate the creators of theatrical 
settings. As such schemes were based partly upon recorded 
observations, they became misleading and dangerous refer- 
ences in subsequent research upon polychromy. The man- 
ner in which the magnificent finds at Olympia were recorded 
put an end to this misguided archaeological spirit. Under 
the direction of E. Curtius and F. Adler the most valuable 
information upon classic polychromy was produced. Their 
unwavering quest for truth, and the thoroughness with 
which they considered their subject from every conceivable 
angle, opened a new era in polychrome research. By their 
efforts it was at last possible to realize the manner in which 
a Doric temple was actually treated with color upon its 
facade. From that time this branch of research was with- 
drawn from the realm of historical fiction to take its legiti- 
mate place as a part of the more exact science of archaeology. 
Without the admirable works of the German and Austrian 
scientists it would have been impossible to pursue this 
investigation to an issue. The research of Furtwangler, 
Wiegand, Heberdey, Lermann, the contributors to the 
Antike Denkmaeler and others, standout as beacons guiding 
those who undertake to study the Greek method of archi- 
tectural and sculptural polychromy. Their statements may 
be depended upon, and their deductions are the self-evident 
testimony of data laboriously collected and codrdinated 
with a specific objective in mind. Scattered fragments have 
been identified and reassembled with such patience, skill 
and good judgment, that the original object of which they 


142 GREEK ARCHITECTURE 


formed parts has been convincingly reconstructed. Furt- 
wangler’s reconstruction of the central akroterion of the 
Aphaia temple, and Curtius and Adler’s of a cresting from 
Olympia, are brilliant examples. In the recording of traces 
of polychromy upon architecture or sculpture, we find the 
same conscientious frame of mind and the exercise of great 
ingenuity of a legitimate order. It is impossible to over-state 
the author’s sense of obligation to these painstaking and 
brilliant investigators for the valuable information con- 
tained in their works. 

This treatise is an informal introduction to a fascinating 
and useful study. The examples which we illustrate have 
been chosen for their explanatory value in demonstrating 
method and technique; they represent only a small part 
of the material that is available. In the hope of sparing any 
student of polychromy that confusion which the author 
experienced, through inaccuracies present in certain writings 
and illustrations, a list of the best known and most acces- 
sible books is appended; each is briefly critized from the 
standpoint of reliability. Much additional information will 
be found in French, German, English and American perti- 
odicals, published by Societies specializing in Hellenic 
research. Works which deal with Greek polychromy of 
periods previous to that of systematized practice (such as 
those of Schliemann and Sir Arthur Evans), have been 
purposely omitted. Our list has no pretention to complete- 
ness, and is not a bibliography of polychromy. In the initial 
stages of study it will save many hours of tedious search 
in libraries, and prove ample for a general acquaintance 
with the subject. | 


Books for Reference or Avoidance in 
Polychrome Research 


An Investigation of the Principles of Athenian Archt- 
lecture. 
Francis Cranmer Penrose, M.A. London, 1851. 
SYerayN ADMIRABLE and trustworthy work which 
eed fm dy has withstood the test of time and the light of 
i Wo-Ny| subsequent discoveries. Penrose’s painstaking ac- 
es curacy, and his moral incapacity to record any- 
thing but things seen, renders his research of enduring value. 
He notes traces of color upon architectural detail which have 
since disappeared, stating that he writes only of ‘‘observed 
facts.”’ In his reconstruction of the polychromy of the por- 
tico of the Propylaea (copied in one of our color plates), 
he remarks “‘Restoration of the color given in these plates 
is not intended to be complete, but carries out as far as is 
warranted, or rendered highly probable by actual remains 
of color.’? As judged by other examples, this restoration 
appears to be a complete reconstitution of the original 
effect. The use of green as one of the colors of the Greek pal- 
ette has been the subject of much debate among archaeolo- 
gists; his opinion upon this subject appears conclusive;— 
“It has been suggested by a high authority upon such 
matters, that the employment of green upon this (Propy- 
laea) and several other places, was unusual among the 
ancients, and that the color now seen has been changed by 
the atmosphere from original blue; a change to which some 
qualities of blueare liable. To this itis mainly to be objected 
[143 ] 





144 BOOKS FOR REFERENCE 


that where the conversion seems to have partially taken 
place, as in the cap of the antae of the Posticum of the 
Parthenon, the general mass of blue is merely spotted and 
streaked with the questionable green, whereas in the example 
before us, and most of the others where green color has been 
mentioned, the color is almost as positive as though it had 
been freshly painted, and without the slightest indication 
of blue. It appears also in Egyptian architecture, which 
cannot but have had great influence on Greek Doric, green 
is often found on colored ornaments in a state of preserva- 
tion which does not admit of doubt.”’ There are a number 
of colored lithographic plates presenting polychromy dis- 
cernible upon Athenian detail; these are executed with great 
accuracy and printed with colors which give an excellent 
idea of the original effect. This book is invaluable in poly- 
chrome research, and it is to be hoped that some enter- 
prising publisher will issue a reprint, as its rarity places 
it outside the reach of the majority of students. 


Uber die Verwendung von Terrakotten am Getson und 
Dache Griechischer Bauwerke. 
Wilhelm Doerpfeld, F. Graeber, R. Borrmann and K. 
Siebold. 
The second edition of this work treats of terra cotta 
cornices, illustrated with four excellent chromolithographs 
of detail from Olympia, Selinous, and elsewhere. 


Handbuch der Architektur. 
Josef Durm. 

A handbook of general information upon Greek archi- 
tecture with three colored plates, (1) a Doric capital with 


BOOKS FOR REFERENCE 145 


an improbable and unprecedented ornamental echinus; 
(2) two triglyphs of purely imaginary treatment; (3) the 
Erectheum capital in polychromy which we have used in 
our color plate, as the treatment conforms to general prac- 
tices. 


Die Tektontk der Hellenen. 

Karl Gottlieb Wilhelm Boetticher. 1874. 4to. One 
volume of text, and one of engraved plates; no colored 
plates. 

This work is very misleading so far as the location of 
polychromy and color development upon detail are con- 
cerned. The author falls into the same errors as Hittorff 
in the reconstructions of a fagade shown upon plates 17 
and 18; the corona is profusely decorated, and ingenious 
inventions figure upon the triglyphs. There is an amusing 
design for a corner akroterion which has no relation to any 
previous or subsequently found example, and which is in no 
way Greek. This work is worthless in polychromy research, 
and if taken seriously would prove very confusing. 


The Esthetic Basis of Greek Arts. 
Rhys Carpenter. 

A Bryn Mawr monograph, which contains valuable 
views upon the function of color in Greek architecture and 
sculpture. No illustrations. 


Modern Color. 
Cutler and Pepper. 

Though the subject of polychromy is not touched so far 
as architecture or sculpture are concerned it is a work of 


146 BOOKS FOR REFERENCE 


great practical value, treating of color phenomena and their 
relation to artistic effect. The author has found no book 
which equals it in clarity of statement, and the practical 
manner in which scientific principles are applied to the 
complexities encountered when producing color combina- 
tion of an artistic character. 


The Laws of Contrast of Color. 
Michael Eugene Chevreul. London, 1861. 


This work has had a wide and undeserved reputation as 
a reference book upon the subject of artistic color combina- 
tion. As a matter of fact it is in substance nothing more 
than a guide for the textile manufacturers and upholsterers 
of Chevreul’s day. Maxims are arbitrarily formulated in 
matters of taste which are based upon popular prejudices 
current at the time of writing; the majority are not founded 
upon any definite argument, sound theory, or fact. It is 
worthless for polychrome study, and has interest merely 
as recording the point of view which prevailed in the mid- 
nineteenth century when artistic taste touched the lowest 
known level. 


Die Archatsche Poros-Architektur der Akropolts zu Athen. 
Theodor Wiegand—One volume of text, a folio of 14 color 
plates and single color lithographs. 

An invaluable reference work on polychromy. The illus- 
trations are instructive, well selected and reproduced. Many 
of our illustrations are taken from this work. The color 
plates are rendered with great precision and give an excel- 
lent idea not only of the arrangement of color upon detail, 
but of the treatment of carving in preparation for pigment. 


BOOKS FOR REFERENCE 147 


In the color plate of the facade of the Temple of Athena, 
the coloring of the cyma is too light, as the limited number 
of colors used in printing could not produce the requisite 
result; this has been rectified in our drawing from Wiegand’s 
detail plate. His arrangement of the group carries the con- 
viction that it represents the original relationship of the 
figures. Much interesting polychrome detail is reproduced 
in color. It is to be regretted that there are not more works 
of this calibre. 


Dachterrakotten aus Campanien. 
Herbert Koch. 

Anexhaustive work upon Greek architectural terra cotta. 
It is profusely illustrated with photogravures and illus- 
trations in the text showing the reconstruction of frag- 
ments and structural detail. Very interesting and varied 
examples are shown of friezes, akroteria, anthemia, roof- 
tiles and other details. There are four color plates which 
demonstrate the arrangement of colors upon detail. The 
illustrations are particularly useful as a guide to the 
modeled technique which the Greeks evolved for plastic 
material, and for the development of color quality through 
surface conformation. It contains a valuable fund of infor- 
mation upon the decorative treatment of clay members. 


Figurative Terra Cotia Revetments in Etruria and Latium 
an the VI and V centuries B.C. 
E. Douglas Van Buren. © 
A work resembling that of Koch in the choice of subject, 
but of far less practical value and scope. It contains useful 
information as to the allotment of colors to detail. The 


148 BOOKS FOR REFERENCE 


illustrations are in half-tone. No color plates. A more recent 
work on Greek structural terra-cotta contains useful in- 
formation as to the treatment of the roof, other inter- 
esting subjects, and some excellent illustrations of cornices. 


Etruscan Tomb Paintings. 
Frederik Poulsen. 


The illustrations are of great interest, as they show the 
Greek idea of appropriate mural painting, and the manner 
in which these decorations related to architectural spaces. 
The text contributes no information as to their coloring— 
an incomprehensible omission; descriptions are confined to 
the explanation of the scenes depicted. The value of this 
work to painters and architects is much depreciated by the 
lack of information upon the decorative characteristics of 
the paintings. 


Olympia. 
Ernst Curtius und Friedrich Adler, Berlin 1896. 

This is the most exhaustive and reliable work so far as 
produced upon the polychromy of Doricarchitecture, though 
it purports to be a work on archaeology solely. The color 
reconstructions of architectural detail and of the design of 
the facades are based entirely upon fact, and have been 
developed with the soundest discrimination. This work con- 
tributed more information that was of value in the author’s 
research than any other. There are eleven colored plates of 
excellent quality, and many single color illustrations; no 
possible angle of consideration appears to have been over- 
looked. The purely impersonal manner in which the research 


BOOKS FOR REFERENCE 149 


was conducted makes the work a model in archaeological 
literature. The first plate of architectural detail shows the 
reconstruction of the facade of the Temple of Zeus, in which 
the sculpture of the metopes and pediment sculptures are 
omitted; in our drawing made from this plate, we added 
the metopes from other equally reliable sources of a later 
date. Other plates show the polychrome treatment of the 
central akroterion of the Heraion, terra-cotta gargoyles and 
moldings, the cornice of the Treasury of Gela, various poly- 
chrome cymae, crestings and stone gargoyles. Five plates 
show the designs of the elaborate mosaic floors. The edition 
published in 1887 contains no colored plates and has much 
less information upon polychromy. In both editions there 
are many illustrations showing the manner in which relief 
was modeled or carved for color application. 


Restauration @ Olympte. 
Victor Lauloux (architect) et Paul Monceaux (Docteur 

des Lettres). Paris 1889. 

This work is the antithesis of that of Curtius and Adler, 
being a purely personal idea of what the authors imagined 
a Greek temple might have been, in so far as its decorations 
are concerned; it is consequently without value in research. 
Reconstruction is developed upon the same lines as that of 
Hittorff for the buildings at Selinous, with many of the 
same flagrant errors. The designs developed upon the 
metopes are without precedent in stylistic treatment, and 
are thoroughly French in character. The architraves are 
highly ornamented, and elaborate mural paintings are de- 
signed upon the containing walls, for both of which features 


150 BOOKS FOR REFERENCE 


there is no justification in archaeological data. In study, it 
is a book to be avoided, being replete with error. 


Monuments et Ouvrages d Art Antiques Restitués. 
Antoine Chrysostome Quatremere de Quincy. Paris 1829. 

This was written at a period at which the most im- 
portant excavations of pcvychrome remains had not yet 
been undertaken. It is a work of considerable reputation 
but of little practical use in this research, as the reconstruc- 
tions are principally based upon the writings of the classic 
authors. A considerable part of the book is devoted to 
speculation as to the treatment of the famous statue of 
Minerva by Phidias in the Parthenon, made of ivory and 
gold. The remarks upon polychromy are very vague. The 
book contains many interesting quotations from classic 
authors who described the artistic beauties of Athens in its 
prime. 


Recueil des Monuments de Ségeste et de Sélinonte. 
Jacob Ignatz Hittorffet L. Zanth. Paris 1870. 98 plates 
and 1 vol. of text. 

For many years Hittorff has been regarded as the oracle 
of Greek polychromy. The excavations recorded in this work 
are of the greatest importance, both from the point of view 
of comprehensive data, and for the reason that they were the 
first which brought a vivid realization of the spectacular 
function of color in Greek architectural effect to the imagina- 
tion of architects and archaeologists. Hittorff’s reconstitu- 
tion of polychrome effect was to a great extent imaginative. 
He appears to have had no appreciation of the relation of 


BOOKS FOR REFERENCE I51 


coloremphasis to architectonic properties in design, as many 
of his flagrant errors prove. By temperament he was so un- 
fortunately constituted that had his efforts been directed to 
literature instead of architecture, we feel that he would have 
had no hesitation in putting his own words in the mouths 
of Homer or Plato. No feeling of modesty or distrust of his 
limitations came to his rescue when he undertook this re- 
sponsible work of reconstruction. In these excavations, cer- 
tain features showed no trace of color; many important 
members were at first missing. In both cases he promptly 
contrived imaginary treatments. Seemingly, it never 
occurred to him that the Greeks might enhance decorative 
interest by the association of unadorned space, on the same 
principle with which the intricacies of musical sound are 
beautified by the rest or pause. Hittorff lacked the intuition 
of the artist. In his hands, the majestic simplicity of the 
Doric cap is converted to frivolity by banal ornamentation; 
he explains with obvious satisfaction that his treatment was 
inspired by that of a capital which he found painted upon 
a vase. Plate 66, which illustrates his reconstitution of the 
exterior treatment of Temple I, demonstrates the dis- 
astrous result of decorating such features as the architrave, 
corona, and capital, which the Greeks did not ornament. 
The virile quality of Doric effect is completely destroyed 
with his puerile decorations recalling china or chintz. This 
work is a monument to the fatuous egoism of its author. 
The most superficial study of accurately reconstituted fa- 
cades will suffice to make the student appreciate the enor- 
mity of crediting the Greek designers of structures with the 
paternity of Hittorff’s productions. When his ornamental 


152 BOOKS FOR REFERENCE 


inventions are eliminated from the facade of Temple T, 
nothing remains; there is scarcely a detail developed upon 
his schemes which has had the good fortune to correspond 
with proven data. He flourished during the ‘‘Romantic’’ 
period, which probably accounts for his mental attitude. 


Restitution du Temple d@ Empedocle a Selinous: Ou V archt- 
tecture polychrome cheg les Grecs. 

Jacob Ignatz Hittorff. Paris 1851—23 colored plates and 
LEX 


The reconstitution of the facade abounds in inaccuracies, 
which include a decorated architrave, white capitals, colored 
shafts, and highly polychromed bases. There is a consider- 
able amount of data upon the coloring or ornamentation, 
some of which is correct, but a great deal pure invention. 
Palmettes for instance, which in every known example are 
treated with alternating colors when two colors are em- 
ployed, are colored with the center and two lower leaves in 
one color, and the remainder of the leaves in the second 
color. A substantial fund of knowledge is essential when 
referring to this book, in order that the orthodox may be 
separated from the false. 


Dortsche Polychromre. 
L. Fenger. Berlin 1886. 


This work contains colored plates showing the poly- 
chrome treatment of the facade of the Temple at Aegina, 
which in the main accords with the reconstitution of Furt- 
wangler, excepting in the color lines of the cap, the recon- 
struction of the central akroterion, and a few minor details. 


BOOKS FOR REFERENCE 153 


The treatment of the polychromy upon the pediment sculp- 
ture is quite inaccurate, which criticism applies to the 
sculpture shown in the reconstructions of the portice of the 
Parthenon, that of the Theseion and the Propylaea. The 
polychromy of detail in most of these buildings is more or 
less accurate and carefully considered. 





Les Formes Architecturales de l Art Classique. 
Constantin Uhde. 1836-1905. 


It contains one plate showing the polychromy of Greek 
moldings, which are accurately depicted. 


Das Farbige Ornament Aller Historischen Stzle. 
Alexander Speltz. 

Part I. Antiquity. Four colored plates are devoted to 
Greek architectural detail in color taken indiscriminately 
from standard works, many of which are reliable and of 
interest. 


Antitke Denkmaeler. 
Hrsg. von Kaiserlich Deutschen Archaeologischen Instit. 

Folio, published in Berlin commencing in 1891. 

A magnificent publication dealing with classic archae- 
ology, profusely illustrated with photogravures and colored 
plates. Polychrome architecture and sculpture are dealt 
with in a number of articles, illustrated with excellent 
colored plates showing the treatment of sculptural detail, 
capitals, moldings, shafts used to support ex-voto sculpture, 
etc. It is a reference work of absolutely reliability and great 
informative value. 


154 BOOKS FOR REFERENCE 


Altattische Porosskulptur. 
Rudolph Heberdey. Vienna 1919. One vol. text and one of 
plates. 


An invaluable monograph upon the full polychrome 
technique of sculpture during the tufaceous stone period. 
Reconstructions are made with the utmost care and with 
great ingenuity. It is an eminently scientific work and can 
be relied upon implicitly. 


Delphi. 
Frederick Poulsen. 

An excellent compilation of researches made at Delphi. 
It is profusely illustrated in half-tone, giving well-lighted 
views of the numerous pieces of sculpture and architectural 
detail found; these are of the greatest interest to architect 
and sculptor. There are careful notes of the color which is 
seen upon various items. An interesting and valuable work. 


—— 


Aegina das Hetligtum der A phata. 
Adolph Furtwangler. Munich 1906. 


A model for archaeological research, covering its subject 
from every conceivable angle. In all his writings this great 
student of Greek art is actuated by an intense reverence for 
fact. Deduction is arrived at by scientific process, after a dis- 
passionate dissection of evidence; each premise is a logical de- 
duction from actualities; ingenuity is developed as a faculty 
quite apart from imagination. In his rearrangement of the 
pediment groups, his sympathy and acquaintance with Greek 
decorative feeling is so profound that the result is thoroughly 


BOOKS FOR REFERENCE 155 


satisfying. Two large plates in color show the polychromy 
of the groups upon the East and West gables. Though many 
parts of the figures showed no trace of color, there is no detail 
of reconstitution which challenges criticism by comparison 
with proven data upon other buildings, or with sculpture of 
its period. There are two plates of architectural detail in 
color, and two excellent reconstructions of the polychromy 
of the facades of the so-called ‘‘New’’ and “Old”’ temples. 
It consists of two volumes; that of the text is profusely 
illustrated. The volume of plates contains fine photo- 
gravures, colored plates of facades and details, and plates 
of reconstructions. The building up of the central akroterion 
from fragments of terra-cotta is a marvel of ingenuity. 
A work of such thoroughness cannot be praised too highly; 
it is invaluable to students of architectural or sculptural 
polychromy. 


Les Fouzlles de Delos. 
Publication by the French School of Athens. 


This voluminous work contains a rather poor colored 
plate of the reconstitution of the polychrome pediment, 
which is of interest mainly for the data which it gives upon 
the use of gold in decoration. The information which it 
contains can be more conveniently studied in Poulsen’s 


book. 


Histoire de la Sculpture Grecque. 
Maxime Collignon. 2 vols. 

This work is amply illustrated and contains a few colored 
plates representing a head of the Triton group, and the 


156 BOOKS FOR REFERENCE 


draped female figures in the Akropolis Museum. There is 
some general information upon the coloring of the early 
sculpture. 


Dictionnaire Ratsonneé de L’ architecture Francaise du XI 
au XVI stecle. 
Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc. 


Under the heading of -‘‘Peinture’’ the author records 
many observations concerning polychrome decoration which 
he made upon Gothic buildings; many of the color traces visi- 
ble in his day have since disappeared. Valuable information 
is imparted as to the evolution of color effect in the earlier 
periods; plausible theories are proffered upon Gothic color 
technique in architectural polychromy. 


APOLOGIA 


The fitting conclusion to this treatise upon architectural 
and sculptural polychromy is an apology, for its author is 
acutely conscious of the fact that subjects are merely 
touched, which by reason of their importance in practice 
and their great scope, call for profound analysis. No work. 
has yet been written on the practice of polychromy; there 
was therefore no opportunity to benefit by the wisdom or 
errors of others, and the work of the pioneer is proverbially 
crude. Through fear of enunciating misguiding maxims, 
lengthy periods were allowed to elapse between writing and 
re-writing; for truth in argument is most likely to reveal 
itself after a lapse of time, error being the natural offspring 
of enthusiasm and haste. 

The purpose of this work was to provide the architect and 
sculptor with simple maxims for guidance, tendered in such 
fashion that work may be understandingly done. Francis 
Bacon, Baron Verulam, says,—‘‘Neither the naked hand 
nor the understanding left to itself can effect much. It is by 
instruments and helps that the work is done, which are as 
much wanted for the understanding as for the hand. And 
as the instruments of the hand either give motion or guide 
it, so the instruments of the mind supply either suggestions 
for the understanding, or cautions.”’ 


Léon V. Solon. 




















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